open-vault/physical/dynamodb.go

package physical

import (
	"fmt"
	"math"
	"net/http"
	"os"
	pkgPath "path"
	"sort"
	"strconv"
	"strings"
	"sync"
	"time"

	log "github.com/mgutz/logxi/v1"

	"github.com/armon/go-metrics"
	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go/aws"
	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go/aws/awserr"
	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go/aws/session"
	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go/service/dynamodb"
	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go/service/dynamodb/dynamodbattribute"
	"github.com/hashicorp/errwrap"
	cleanhttp "github.com/hashicorp/go-cleanhttp"
	"github.com/hashicorp/go-uuid"
	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/helper/awsutil"
	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/helper/consts"
)

const (
	// DefaultDynamoDBRegion is used when no region is configured
	// explicitly.
	DefaultDynamoDBRegion = "us-east-1"
	// DefaultDynamoDBTableName is used when no table name
	// is configured explicitly.
	DefaultDynamoDBTableName = "vault-dynamodb-backend"

	// DefaultDynamoDBReadCapacity is the default read capacity
	// that is used when none is configured explicitly.
	DefaultDynamoDBReadCapacity = 5
	// DefaultDynamoDBWriteCapacity is the default write capacity
	// that is used when none is configured explicitly.
	DefaultDynamoDBWriteCapacity = 5

	// DynamoDBEmptyPath is the string that is used instead of
	// empty strings when stored in DynamoDB.
	DynamoDBEmptyPath = " "
	// DynamoDBLockPrefix is the prefix used to mark DynamoDB records
	// as locks. This prefix causes them not to be returned by
	// List operations.
	DynamoDBLockPrefix = "_"

	// The lock TTL matches the default that Consul API uses, 15 seconds.
	DynamoDBLockTTL = 15 * time.Second

	// The amount of time to wait between the lock renewals
	DynamoDBLockRenewInterval = 5 * time.Second

	// DynamoDBLockRetryInterval is the amount of time to wait
	// if a lock fails before trying again.
	DynamoDBLockRetryInterval = time.Second
	// DynamoDBWatchRetryMax is the number of times to re-try a
	// failed watch before signaling that leadership is lost.
	DynamoDBWatchRetryMax = 5
	// DynamoDBWatchRetryInterval is the amount of time to wait
	// if a watch fails before trying again.
	DynamoDBWatchRetryInterval = 5 * time.Second
)

// DynamoDBBackend is a physical backend that stores data in
// a DynamoDB table. It can be run in high-availability mode
// as DynamoDB has locking capabilities.
type DynamoDBBackend struct {
	table      string
	client     *dynamodb.DynamoDB
	recovery   bool
	logger     log.Logger
	haEnabled  bool
	permitPool *PermitPool
}

// DynamoDBRecord is the representation of a vault entry in
// DynamoDB. The vault key is split up into two components
// (Path and Key) in order to allow more efficient listings.
type DynamoDBRecord struct {
	Path  string
	Key   string
	Value []byte
}

// DynamoDBLock implements a lock using an DynamoDB client.
type DynamoDBLock struct {
	backend    *DynamoDBBackend
	value, key string
	identity   string
	held       bool
	lock       sync.Mutex
	recovery   bool
	// Allow modifying the Lock durations for ease of unit testing.
	renewInterval      time.Duration
	ttl                time.Duration
	watchRetryInterval time.Duration
}

type DynamoDBLockRecord struct {
	Path     string
	Key      string
	Value    []byte
	Identity []byte
	Expires  int64
}

// newDynamoDBBackend constructs a DynamoDB backend. If the
// configured DynamoDB table does not exist, it creates it.
func newDynamoDBBackend(conf map[string]string, logger log.Logger) (Backend, error) {
	table := os.Getenv("AWS_DYNAMODB_TABLE")
	if table == "" {
		table = conf["table"]
		if table == "" {
			table = DefaultDynamoDBTableName
		}
	}
	readCapacityString := os.Getenv("AWS_DYNAMODB_READ_CAPACITY")
	if readCapacityString == "" {
		readCapacityString = conf["read_capacity"]
		if readCapacityString == "" {
			readCapacityString = "0"
		}
	}
	readCapacity, err := strconv.Atoi(readCapacityString)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid read capacity: %s", readCapacityString)
	}
	if readCapacity == 0 {
		readCapacity = DefaultDynamoDBReadCapacity
	}

	writeCapacityString := os.Getenv("AWS_DYNAMODB_WRITE_CAPACITY")
	if writeCapacityString == "" {
		writeCapacityString = conf["write_capacity"]
		if writeCapacityString == "" {
			writeCapacityString = "0"
		}
	}
	writeCapacity, err := strconv.Atoi(writeCapacityString)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid write capacity: %s", writeCapacityString)
	}
	if writeCapacity == 0 {
		writeCapacity = DefaultDynamoDBWriteCapacity
	}

	accessKey := os.Getenv("AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID")
	if accessKey == "" {
		accessKey = conf["access_key"]
	}
	secretKey := os.Getenv("AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY")
	if secretKey == "" {
		secretKey = conf["secret_key"]
	}
	sessionToken := os.Getenv("AWS_SESSION_TOKEN")
	if sessionToken == "" {
		sessionToken = conf["session_token"]
	}

	endpoint := os.Getenv("AWS_DYNAMODB_ENDPOINT")
	if endpoint == "" {
		endpoint = conf["endpoint"]
	}
	region := os.Getenv("AWS_REGION")
	if region == "" {
		region = os.Getenv("AWS_DEFAULT_REGION")
		if region == "" {
			region = conf["region"]
			if region == "" {
				region = DefaultDynamoDBRegion
			}
		}
	}

	credsConfig := &awsutil.CredentialsConfig{
		AccessKey:    accessKey,
		SecretKey:    secretKey,
		SessionToken: sessionToken,
	}
	creds, err := credsConfig.GenerateCredentialChain()
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	pooledTransport := cleanhttp.DefaultPooledTransport()
	pooledTransport.MaxIdleConnsPerHost = consts.ExpirationRestoreWorkerCount

	awsConf := aws.NewConfig().
		WithCredentials(creds).
		WithRegion(region).
		WithEndpoint(endpoint).
		WithHTTPClient(&http.Client{
			Transport: pooledTransport,
		})
	client := dynamodb.New(session.New(awsConf))

	if err := ensureTableExists(client, table, readCapacity, writeCapacity); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	haEnabled := os.Getenv("DYNAMODB_HA_ENABLED")
	if haEnabled == "" {
		haEnabled = conf["ha_enabled"]
	}
	haEnabledBool, _ := strconv.ParseBool(haEnabled)

	recoveryMode := os.Getenv("RECOVERY_MODE")
	if recoveryMode == "" {
		recoveryMode = conf["recovery_mode"]
	}
	recoveryModeBool, _ := strconv.ParseBool(recoveryMode)

	maxParStr, ok := conf["max_parallel"]
	var maxParInt int
	if ok {
		maxParInt, err = strconv.Atoi(maxParStr)
		if err != nil {
			return nil, errwrap.Wrapf("failed parsing max_parallel parameter: {{err}}", err)
		}
		if logger.IsDebug() {
			logger.Debug("physical/dynamodb: max_parallel set", "max_parallel", maxParInt)
		}
	}

	return &DynamoDBBackend{
		table:      table,
		client:     client,
		permitPool: NewPermitPool(maxParInt),
		recovery:   recoveryModeBool,
		haEnabled:  haEnabledBool,
		logger:     logger,
	}, nil
}

// Put is used to insert or update an entry
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) Put(entry *Entry) error {
	defer metrics.MeasureSince([]string{"dynamodb", "put"}, time.Now())

	record := DynamoDBRecord{
		Path:  recordPathForVaultKey(entry.Key),
		Key:   recordKeyForVaultKey(entry.Key),
		Value: entry.Value,
	}
	item, err := dynamodbattribute.ConvertToMap(record)
	if err != nil {
		return fmt.Errorf("could not convert prefix record to DynamoDB item: %s", err)
	}
	requests := []*dynamodb.WriteRequest{{
		PutRequest: &dynamodb.PutRequest{
			Item: item,
		},
	}}

	for _, prefix := range prefixes(entry.Key) {
		record = DynamoDBRecord{
			Path: recordPathForVaultKey(prefix),
			Key:  fmt.Sprintf("%s/", recordKeyForVaultKey(prefix)),
		}
		item, err := dynamodbattribute.ConvertToMap(record)
		if err != nil {
			return fmt.Errorf("could not convert prefix record to DynamoDB item: %s", err)
		}
		requests = append(requests, &dynamodb.WriteRequest{
			PutRequest: &dynamodb.PutRequest{
				Item: item,
			},
		})
	}

	return d.batchWriteRequests(requests)
}

// Get is used to fetch an entry
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) Get(key string) (*Entry, error) {
	defer metrics.MeasureSince([]string{"dynamodb", "get"}, time.Now())

	d.permitPool.Acquire()
	defer d.permitPool.Release()

	resp, err := d.client.GetItem(&dynamodb.GetItemInput{
		TableName:      aws.String(d.table),
		ConsistentRead: aws.Bool(true),
		Key: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
			"Path": {S: aws.String(recordPathForVaultKey(key))},
			"Key":  {S: aws.String(recordKeyForVaultKey(key))},
		},
	})
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if resp.Item == nil {
		return nil, nil
	}

	record := &DynamoDBRecord{}
	if err := dynamodbattribute.ConvertFromMap(resp.Item, record); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return &Entry{
		Key:   vaultKey(record),
		Value: record.Value,
	}, nil
}

// Delete is used to permanently delete an entry
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) Delete(key string) error {
	defer metrics.MeasureSince([]string{"dynamodb", "delete"}, time.Now())

	requests := []*dynamodb.WriteRequest{{
		DeleteRequest: &dynamodb.DeleteRequest{
			Key: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
				"Path": {S: aws.String(recordPathForVaultKey(key))},
				"Key":  {S: aws.String(recordKeyForVaultKey(key))},
			},
		},
	}}

	// clean up now empty 'folders'
	prefixes := prefixes(key)
	sort.Sort(sort.Reverse(sort.StringSlice(prefixes)))
	for _, prefix := range prefixes {
		hasChildren, err := d.hasChildren(prefix)
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		if !hasChildren {
			requests = append(requests, &dynamodb.WriteRequest{
				DeleteRequest: &dynamodb.DeleteRequest{
					Key: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
						"Path": {S: aws.String(recordPathForVaultKey(prefix))},
						"Key":  {S: aws.String(fmt.Sprintf("%s/", recordKeyForVaultKey(prefix)))},
					},
				},
			})
		}
	}

	return d.batchWriteRequests(requests)
}

// List is used to list all the keys under a given
// prefix, up to the next prefix.
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) List(prefix string) ([]string, error) {
	defer metrics.MeasureSince([]string{"dynamodb", "list"}, time.Now())

	prefix = strings.TrimSuffix(prefix, "/")

	keys := []string{}
	prefix = escapeEmptyPath(prefix)
	queryInput := &dynamodb.QueryInput{
		TableName:      aws.String(d.table),
		ConsistentRead: aws.Bool(true),
		KeyConditions: map[string]*dynamodb.Condition{
			"Path": {
				ComparisonOperator: aws.String("EQ"),
				AttributeValueList: []*dynamodb.AttributeValue{{
					S: aws.String(prefix),
				}},
			},
		},
	}

	d.permitPool.Acquire()
	defer d.permitPool.Release()

	err := d.client.QueryPages(queryInput, func(out *dynamodb.QueryOutput, lastPage bool) bool {
		var record DynamoDBRecord
		for _, item := range out.Items {
			dynamodbattribute.ConvertFromMap(item, &record)
			if !strings.HasPrefix(record.Key, DynamoDBLockPrefix) {
				keys = append(keys, record.Key)
			}
		}
		return !lastPage
	})
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return keys, nil
}

// hasChildren returns true if there exist items below a certain path prefix.
// To do so, the method fetches such items from DynamoDB. If there are more
// than one item (which is the "directory" item), there are children.
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) hasChildren(prefix string) (bool, error) {
	prefix = strings.TrimSuffix(prefix, "/")
	prefix = escapeEmptyPath(prefix)

	queryInput := &dynamodb.QueryInput{
		TableName:      aws.String(d.table),
		ConsistentRead: aws.Bool(true),
		KeyConditions: map[string]*dynamodb.Condition{
			"Path": {
				ComparisonOperator: aws.String("EQ"),
				AttributeValueList: []*dynamodb.AttributeValue{{
					S: aws.String(prefix),
				}},
			},
		},
		// Avoid fetching too many items from DynamoDB for performance reasons.
		// We need at least two because one is the directory item, all others
		// are children.
		Limit: aws.Int64(2),
	}

	d.permitPool.Acquire()
	defer d.permitPool.Release()

	out, err := d.client.Query(queryInput)
	if err != nil {
		return false, err
	}
	return len(out.Items) > 1, nil
}

// LockWith is used for mutual exclusion based on the given key.
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) LockWith(key, value string) (Lock, error) {
	identity, err := uuid.GenerateUUID()
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return &DynamoDBLock{
		backend:            d,
		key:                pkgPath.Join(pkgPath.Dir(key), DynamoDBLockPrefix+pkgPath.Base(key)),
		value:              value,
		identity:           identity,
		recovery:           d.recovery,
		renewInterval:      DynamoDBLockRenewInterval,
		ttl:                DynamoDBLockTTL,
		watchRetryInterval: DynamoDBWatchRetryInterval,
	}, nil
}

func (d *DynamoDBBackend) HAEnabled() bool {
	return d.haEnabled
}

// batchWriteRequests takes a list of write requests and executes them in badges
// with a maximum size of 25 (which is the limit of BatchWriteItem requests).
func (d *DynamoDBBackend) batchWriteRequests(requests []*dynamodb.WriteRequest) error {
	for len(requests) > 0 {
		batchSize := int(math.Min(float64(len(requests)), 25))
		batch := requests[:batchSize]
		requests = requests[batchSize:]

		d.permitPool.Acquire()
		_, err := d.client.BatchWriteItem(&dynamodb.BatchWriteItemInput{
			RequestItems: map[string][]*dynamodb.WriteRequest{
				d.table: batch,
			},
		})
		d.permitPool.Release()
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
	}
	return nil
}

// Lock tries to acquire the lock by repeatedly trying to create
// a record in the DynamoDB table. It will block until either the
// stop channel is closed or the lock could be acquired successfully.
// The returned channel will be closed once the lock is deleted or
// changed in the DynamoDB table.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) Lock(stopCh <-chan struct{}) (doneCh <-chan struct{}, retErr error) {
	l.lock.Lock()
	defer l.lock.Unlock()
	if l.held {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("lock already held")
	}

	done := make(chan struct{})
	// close done channel even in case of error
	defer func() {
		if retErr != nil {
			close(done)
		}
	}()

	var (
		stop    = make(chan struct{})
		success = make(chan struct{})
		errors  = make(chan error)
		leader  = make(chan struct{})
	)
	// try to acquire the lock asynchronously
	go l.tryToLock(stop, success, errors)

	select {
	case <-success:
		l.held = true
		// after acquiring it successfully, we must renew the lock periodically,
		// and watch the lock in order to close the leader channel
		// once it is lost.
		go l.periodicallyRenewLock(leader)
		go l.watch(leader)
	case retErr = <-errors:
		close(stop)
		return nil, retErr
	case <-stopCh:
		close(stop)
		return nil, nil
	}

	return leader, retErr
}

// Unlock releases the lock by deleting the lock record from the
// DynamoDB table.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) Unlock() error {
	l.lock.Lock()
	defer l.lock.Unlock()
	if !l.held {
		return nil
	}

	l.held = false
	if err := l.backend.Delete(l.key); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// Value checks whether or not the lock is held by any instance of DynamoDBLock,
// including this one, and returns the current value.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) Value() (bool, string, error) {
	entry, err := l.backend.Get(l.key)
	if err != nil {
		return false, "", err
	}
	if entry == nil {
		return false, "", nil
	}

	return true, string(entry.Value), nil
}

// tryToLock tries to create a new item in DynamoDB
// every `DynamoDBLockRetryInterval`. As long as the item
// cannot be created (because it already exists), it will
// be retried. If the operation fails due to an error, it
// is sent to the errors channel.
// When the lock could be acquired successfully, the success
// channel is closed.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) tryToLock(stop, success chan struct{}, errors chan error) {
	ticker := time.NewTicker(DynamoDBLockRetryInterval)

	for {
		select {
		case <-stop:
			ticker.Stop()
		case <-ticker.C:
			err := l.writeItem()
			if err != nil {
				if err, ok := err.(awserr.Error); ok {
					// Don't report a condition check failure, this means that the lock
					// is already being held.
					if err.Code() != dynamodb.ErrCodeConditionalCheckFailedException {
						errors <- err
					}
				} else {
					// Its not an AWS error, and is probably not transient, bail out.
					errors <- err
					return
				}
			} else {
				ticker.Stop()
				close(success)
				return
			}
		}
	}
}

func (l *DynamoDBLock) periodicallyRenewLock(done chan struct{}) {
	ticker := time.NewTicker(l.renewInterval)
	for {
		select {
		case <-ticker.C:
			l.writeItem()
		case <-done:
			ticker.Stop()
			return
		}
	}
}

// Attempts to put/update the dynamodb item using condition expressions to
// evaluate the TTL.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) writeItem() error {
	now := time.Now()

	_, err := l.backend.client.UpdateItem(&dynamodb.UpdateItemInput{
		TableName: aws.String(l.backend.table),
		Key: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
			"Path": &dynamodb.AttributeValue{S: aws.String(recordPathForVaultKey(l.key))},
			"Key":  &dynamodb.AttributeValue{S: aws.String(recordKeyForVaultKey(l.key))},
		},
		UpdateExpression: aws.String("SET #value=:value, #identity=:identity, #expires=:expires"),
		// If both key and path already exist, we can only write if
		// A. identity is equal to our identity (or the identity doesn't exist)
		// or
		// B. The ttl on the item is <= to the current time
		ConditionExpression: aws.String(
			"attribute_not_exists(#path) or " +
				"attribute_not_exists(#key) or " +
				// To work when upgrading from older versions that did not include the
				// Identity attribute, we first check if the attr doesn't exist, and if
				// it does, then we check if the identity is equal to our own.
				"(attribute_not_exists(#identity) or #identity = :identity) or " +
				"#expires <= :now",
		),
		ExpressionAttributeNames: map[string]*string{
			"#path":     aws.String("Path"),
			"#key":      aws.String("Key"),
			"#identity": aws.String("Identity"),
			"#expires":  aws.String("Expires"),
			"#value":    aws.String("Value"),
		},
		ExpressionAttributeValues: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
			":identity": &dynamodb.AttributeValue{B: []byte(l.identity)},
			":value":    &dynamodb.AttributeValue{B: []byte(l.value)},
			":now":      &dynamodb.AttributeValue{N: aws.String(strconv.FormatInt(now.UnixNano(), 10))},
			":expires":  &dynamodb.AttributeValue{N: aws.String(strconv.FormatInt(now.Add(l.ttl).UnixNano(), 10))},
		},
	})
	return err
}

// watch checks whether the lock has changed in the
// DynamoDB table and closes the leader channel if so.
// The interval is set by `DynamoDBWatchRetryInterval`.
// If an error occurs during the check, watch will retry
// the operation for `DynamoDBWatchRetryMax` times and
// close the leader channel if it can't succeed.
func (l *DynamoDBLock) watch(lost chan struct{}) {
	retries := DynamoDBWatchRetryMax

	ticker := time.NewTicker(l.watchRetryInterval)
WatchLoop:
	for {
		select {
		case <-ticker.C:
			resp, err := l.backend.client.GetItem(&dynamodb.GetItemInput{
				TableName:      aws.String(l.backend.table),
				ConsistentRead: aws.Bool(true),
				Key: map[string]*dynamodb.AttributeValue{
					"Path": {S: aws.String(recordPathForVaultKey(l.key))},
					"Key":  {S: aws.String(recordKeyForVaultKey(l.key))},
				},
			})
			if err != nil {
				retries--
				if retries == 0 {
					break WatchLoop
				}
				continue
			}

			if resp == nil {
				break WatchLoop
			}
			record := &DynamoDBLockRecord{}
			err = dynamodbattribute.UnmarshalMap(resp.Item, record)
			if err != nil || string(record.Identity) != l.identity {
				break WatchLoop
			}
		}
	}

	close(lost)
}

// ensureTableExists creates a DynamoDB table with a given
// DynamoDB client. If the table already exists, it is not
// being reconfigured.
func ensureTableExists(client *dynamodb.DynamoDB, table string, readCapacity, writeCapacity int) error {
	_, err := client.DescribeTable(&dynamodb.DescribeTableInput{
		TableName: aws.String(table),
	})
	if awserr, ok := err.(awserr.Error); ok {
		if awserr.Code() == "ResourceNotFoundException" {
			_, err = client.CreateTable(&dynamodb.CreateTableInput{
				TableName: aws.String(table),
				ProvisionedThroughput: &dynamodb.ProvisionedThroughput{
					ReadCapacityUnits:  aws.Int64(int64(readCapacity)),
					WriteCapacityUnits: aws.Int64(int64(writeCapacity)),
				},
				KeySchema: []*dynamodb.KeySchemaElement{{
					AttributeName: aws.String("Path"),
					KeyType:       aws.String("HASH"),
				}, {
					AttributeName: aws.String("Key"),
					KeyType:       aws.String("RANGE"),
				}},
				AttributeDefinitions: []*dynamodb.AttributeDefinition{{
					AttributeName: aws.String("Path"),
					AttributeType: aws.String("S"),
				}, {
					AttributeName: aws.String("Key"),
					AttributeType: aws.String("S"),
				}},
			})
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}

			err = client.WaitUntilTableExists(&dynamodb.DescribeTableInput{
				TableName: aws.String(table),
			})
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}
		}
	}
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// recordPathForVaultKey transforms a vault key into
// a value suitable for the `DynamoDBRecord`'s `Path`
// property. This path equals the the vault key without
// its last component.
func recordPathForVaultKey(key string) string {
	if strings.Contains(key, "/") {
		return pkgPath.Dir(key)
	}
	return DynamoDBEmptyPath
}

// recordKeyForVaultKey transforms a vault key into
// a value suitable for the `DynamoDBRecord`'s `Key`
// property. This path equals the the vault key's
// last component.
func recordKeyForVaultKey(key string) string {
	return pkgPath.Base(key)
}

// vaultKey returns the vault key for a given record
// from the DynamoDB table. This is the combination of
// the records Path and Key.
func vaultKey(record *DynamoDBRecord) string {
	path := unescapeEmptyPath(record.Path)
	if path == "" {
		return record.Key
	}
	return pkgPath.Join(record.Path, record.Key)
}

// escapeEmptyPath is used to escape the root key's path
// with a value that can be stored in DynamoDB. DynamoDB
// does not allow values to be empty strings.
func escapeEmptyPath(s string) string {
	if s == "" {
		return DynamoDBEmptyPath
	}
	return s
}

// unescapeEmptyPath is the opposite of `escapeEmptyPath`.
func unescapeEmptyPath(s string) string {
	if s == DynamoDBEmptyPath {
		return ""
	}
	return s
}

// prefixes returns all parent 'folders' for a given
// vault key.
// e.g. for 'foo/bar/baz', it returns ['foo', 'foo/bar']
func prefixes(s string) []string {
	components := strings.Split(s, "/")
	result := []string{}
	for i := 1; i < len(components); i++ {
		result = append(result, strings.Join(components[:i], "/"))
	}
	return result
}