diff --git a/changelog/12820.txt b/changelog/12820.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c7b92e67f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/changelog/12820.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+```release-note:feature
+Add ClientID to Token With Entities in Activity Log: Vault tokens without entities are now tracked with client IDs and deduplicated in the Activity Log
+```
diff --git a/command/operator_usage.go b/command/operator_usage.go
index a6b4b59cc..cce3c6508 100644
--- a/command/operator_usage.go
+++ b/command/operator_usage.go
@@ -191,8 +191,11 @@ type UsageCommandNamespace struct {
 type UsageResponse struct {
 	namespacePath string
 	entityCount   int64
-	tokenCount    int64
-	clientCount   int64
+	// As per 1.9, the tokenCount field will contain the distinct non-entity
+	// token clients instead of each individual token.
+	tokenCount int64
+
+	clientCount int64
 }
 
 func jsonNumberOK(m map[string]interface{}, key string) (int64, bool) {
diff --git a/sdk/logical/request.go b/sdk/logical/request.go
index e683217a6..580953147 100644
--- a/sdk/logical/request.go
+++ b/sdk/logical/request.go
@@ -214,6 +214,12 @@ type Request struct {
 	// in response headers; it's attached to the request rather than the response
 	// because not all requests yields non-nil responses.
 	responseState *WALState
+
+	// ClientID is the identity of the caller. If the token is associated with an
+	// entity, it will be the same as the EntityID . If the token has no entity,
+	// this will be the sha256(sorted policies + namespace) associated with the
+	// client token.
+	ClientID string
 }
 
 // Clone returns a deep copy of the request by using copystructure
diff --git a/vault/activity/activity_log.pb.go b/vault/activity/activity_log.pb.go
index ab60ae9f4..d59d3d3e1 100644
--- a/vault/activity/activity_log.pb.go
+++ b/vault/activity/activity_log.pb.go
@@ -20,18 +20,23 @@ const (
 	_ = protoimpl.EnforceVersion(protoimpl.MaxVersion - 20)
 )
 
-// EntityRecord is generated the first time an entity is active
-// each month.
+// EntityRecord is generated the first time an client is active
+// each month. This can store clients associated with entities
+// or nonEntity clients, and really is a ClientRecord, not
+// specifically an EntityRecord
 type EntityRecord struct {
 	state         protoimpl.MessageState
 	sizeCache     protoimpl.SizeCache
 	unknownFields protoimpl.UnknownFields
 
-	EntityID    string `protobuf:"bytes,1,opt,name=entity_id,json=entityId,proto3" json:"entity_id,omitempty"`
+	ClientID    string `protobuf:"bytes,1,opt,name=client_id,json=clientId,proto3" json:"client_id,omitempty"`
 	NamespaceID string `protobuf:"bytes,2,opt,name=namespace_id,json=namespaceID,proto3" json:"namespace_id,omitempty"`
 	// using the Timestamp type would cost us an extra
 	// 4 bytes per record to store nanoseconds.
 	Timestamp int64 `protobuf:"varint,3,opt,name=timestamp,proto3" json:"timestamp,omitempty"`
+	// non_entity records whether the given EntityRecord is
+	// for a TWE or an entity-bound token.
+	NonEntity bool `protobuf:"varint,4,opt,name=non_entity,json=nonEntity,proto3" json:"non_entity,omitempty"`
 }
 
 func (x *EntityRecord) Reset() {
@@ -66,9 +71,9 @@ func (*EntityRecord) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
 	return file_vault_activity_activity_log_proto_rawDescGZIP(), []int{0}
 }
 
-func (x *EntityRecord) GetEntityID() string {
+func (x *EntityRecord) GetClientID() string {
 	if x != nil {
-		return x.EntityID
+		return x.ClientID
 	}
 	return ""
 }
@@ -87,6 +92,13 @@ func (x *EntityRecord) GetTimestamp() int64 {
 	return 0
 }
 
+func (x *EntityRecord) GetNonEntity() bool {
+	if x != nil {
+		return x.NonEntity
+	}
+	return false
+}
+
 type LogFragment struct {
 	state         protoimpl.MessageState
 	sizeCache     protoimpl.SizeCache
@@ -95,8 +107,8 @@ type LogFragment struct {
 	// hostname (or node ID?) where the fragment originated,
 	// used for debugging.
 	OriginatingNode string `protobuf:"bytes,1,opt,name=originating_node,json=originatingNode,proto3" json:"originating_node,omitempty"`
-	// active entities not yet in a log segment
-	Entities []*EntityRecord `protobuf:"bytes,2,rep,name=entities,proto3" json:"entities,omitempty"`
+	// active clients not yet in a log segment
+	Clients []*EntityRecord `protobuf:"bytes,2,rep,name=clients,proto3" json:"clients,omitempty"`
 	// token counts not yet in a log segment,
 	// indexed by namespace ID
 	NonEntityTokens map[string]uint64 `protobuf:"bytes,3,rep,name=non_entity_tokens,json=nonEntityTokens,proto3" json:"non_entity_tokens,omitempty" protobuf_key:"bytes,1,opt,name=key,proto3" protobuf_val:"varint,2,opt,name=value,proto3"`
@@ -141,9 +153,9 @@ func (x *LogFragment) GetOriginatingNode() string {
 	return ""
 }
 
-func (x *LogFragment) GetEntities() []*EntityRecord {
+func (x *LogFragment) GetClients() []*EntityRecord {
 	if x != nil {
-		return x.Entities
+		return x.Clients
 	}
 	return nil
 }
@@ -155,12 +167,14 @@ func (x *LogFragment) GetNonEntityTokens() map[string]uint64 {
 	return nil
 }
 
+// This activity log stores records for both clients with entities
+// and clients without entities
 type EntityActivityLog struct {
 	state         protoimpl.MessageState
 	sizeCache     protoimpl.SizeCache
 	unknownFields protoimpl.UnknownFields
 
-	Entities []*EntityRecord `protobuf:"bytes,1,rep,name=entities,proto3" json:"entities,omitempty"`
+	Clients []*EntityRecord `protobuf:"bytes,1,rep,name=clients,proto3" json:"clients,omitempty"`
 }
 
 func (x *EntityActivityLog) Reset() {
@@ -195,9 +209,9 @@ func (*EntityActivityLog) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
 	return file_vault_activity_activity_log_proto_rawDescGZIP(), []int{2}
 }
 
-func (x *EntityActivityLog) GetEntities() []*EntityRecord {
+func (x *EntityActivityLog) GetClients() []*EntityRecord {
 	if x != nil {
-		return x.Entities
+		return x.Clients
 	}
 	return nil
 }
@@ -292,52 +306,53 @@ var File_vault_activity_activity_log_proto protoreflect.FileDescriptor
 var file_vault_activity_activity_log_proto_rawDesc = []byte{
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+	0x64, 0x45, 0x6e, 0x74, 0x72, 0x79, 0x12, 0x10, 0x0a, 0x03, 0x6b, 0x65, 0x79, 0x18, 0x01, 0x20,
+	0x01, 0x28, 0x09, 0x52, 0x03, 0x6b, 0x65, 0x79, 0x12, 0x14, 0x0a, 0x05, 0x76, 0x61, 0x6c, 0x75,
+	0x65, 0x18, 0x02, 0x20, 0x01, 0x28, 0x04, 0x52, 0x05, 0x76, 0x61, 0x6c, 0x75, 0x65, 0x3a, 0x02,
+	0x38, 0x01, 0x22, 0x15, 0x0a, 0x13, 0x4c, 0x6f, 0x67, 0x46, 0x72, 0x61, 0x67, 0x6d, 0x65, 0x6e,
+	0x74, 0x52, 0x65, 0x73, 0x70, 0x6f, 0x6e, 0x73, 0x65, 0x42, 0x2b, 0x5a, 0x29, 0x67, 0x69, 0x74,
+	0x68, 0x75, 0x62, 0x2e, 0x63, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x2f, 0x68, 0x61, 0x73, 0x68, 0x69, 0x63, 0x6f, 0x72,
+	0x70, 0x2f, 0x76, 0x61, 0x75, 0x6c, 0x74, 0x2f, 0x76, 0x61, 0x75, 0x6c, 0x74, 0x2f, 0x61, 0x63,
+	0x74, 0x69, 0x76, 0x69, 0x74, 0x79, 0x62, 0x06, 0x70, 0x72, 0x6f, 0x74, 0x6f, 0x33,
 }
 
 var (
@@ -363,9 +378,9 @@ var file_vault_activity_activity_log_proto_goTypes = []interface{}{
 	nil,                         // 6: activity.TokenCount.CountByNamespaceIDEntry
 }
 var file_vault_activity_activity_log_proto_depIDxs = []int32{
-	0, // 0: activity.LogFragment.entities:type_name -> activity.EntityRecord
+	0, // 0: activity.LogFragment.clients:type_name -> activity.EntityRecord
 	5, // 1: activity.LogFragment.non_entity_tokens:type_name -> activity.LogFragment.NonEntityTokensEntry
-	0, // 2: activity.EntityActivityLog.entities:type_name -> activity.EntityRecord
+	0, // 2: activity.EntityActivityLog.clients:type_name -> activity.EntityRecord
 	6, // 3: activity.TokenCount.count_by_namespace_id:type_name -> activity.TokenCount.CountByNamespaceIDEntry
 	4, // [4:4] is the sub-list for method output_type
 	4, // [4:4] is the sub-list for method input_type
diff --git a/vault/activity/activity_log.proto b/vault/activity/activity_log.proto
index 03aaed577..e785627f3 100644
--- a/vault/activity/activity_log.proto
+++ b/vault/activity/activity_log.proto
@@ -4,14 +4,19 @@ option go_package = "github.com/hashicorp/vault/vault/activity";
 
 package activity;
 
-// EntityRecord is generated the first time an entity is active
-// each month.
+// EntityRecord is generated the first time an client is active
+ // each month. This can store clients associated with entities 
+ // or nonEntity clients, and really is a ClientRecord, not 
+ // specifically an EntityRecord
 message EntityRecord {
-	string entity_id = 1;
+	string client_id = 1;
 	string namespace_id = 2;
 	// using the Timestamp type would cost us an extra
 	// 4 bytes per record to store nanoseconds.
 	int64 timestamp = 3;
+	// non_entity records whether the given EntityRecord is
+ 	// for a TWE or an entity-bound token.
+ 	bool non_entity = 4;
 }
 
 message LogFragment {
@@ -19,16 +24,18 @@ message LogFragment {
 	// used for debugging.
 	string originating_node = 1;
 
-	// active entities not yet in a log segment
-	repeated EntityRecord entities = 2;
+	// active clients not yet in a log segment
+	repeated EntityRecord clients = 2;
 
 	// token counts not yet in a log segment,
 	// indexed by namespace ID
 	map<string,uint64> non_entity_tokens = 3;
 }
 
+// This activity log stores records for both clients with entities
+// and clients without entities
 message EntityActivityLog {
-	repeated EntityRecord entities = 1;
+	repeated EntityRecord clients = 1;
 }
 
 message TokenCount {
diff --git a/vault/activity_log.go b/vault/activity_log.go
index 33f9c24be..fb866640a 100644
--- a/vault/activity_log.go
+++ b/vault/activity_log.go
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ package vault
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/sha256"
+	"encoding/base64"
 	"encoding/json"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
@@ -11,6 +13,7 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
+	"unicode/utf8"
 
 	"github.com/golang/protobuf/proto"
 	log "github.com/hashicorp/go-hclog"
@@ -19,6 +22,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/helper/timeutil"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/logical"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/vault/activity"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/copystructure"
 )
 
 const (
@@ -58,18 +62,38 @@ const (
 	// standby fragment before sending it to the active node.
 	// Estimates as 8KiB / 64 bytes = 128
 	activityFragmentStandbyCapacity = 128
+
+	// Delimiter between the string fields used to generate a client
+	// ID for tokens without entities. This is the 0 character, which
+	// is a non-printable string. Please see unicode.IsPrint for details.
+	clientIDTWEDelimiter = rune('\x00')
+
+	// Delimiter between each policy in the sorted policies used to
+	// generate a client ID for tokens without entities. This is the 127
+	// character, which is a non-printable string. Please see unicode.IsPrint
+	// for details.
+	sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter = rune('\x7F')
+
+	// trackedTWESegmentPeriod is a time period of a little over a month, and represents
+	// the amount of time that needs to pass after a 1.9 or later upgrade to result in
+	// all fragments and segments no longer storing token counts in the directtokens
+	// storage path.
+	trackedTWESegmentPeriod = 35 * 24
 )
 
 type segmentInfo struct {
 	startTimestamp       int64
-	currentEntities      *activity.EntityActivityLog
-	tokenCount           *activity.TokenCount
-	entitySequenceNumber uint64
+	currentClients       *activity.EntityActivityLog
+	clientSequenceNumber uint64
+	// DEPRECATED
+	// This field is needed for backward compatibility with fragments
+	// and segments created with vault versions before 1.9.
+	tokenCount *activity.TokenCount
 }
 
 type clients struct {
-	distinctEntities uint64
-	nonEntityTokens  uint64
+	distinctEntities    uint64
+	distinctNonEntities uint64
 }
 
 // ActivityLog tracks unique entity counts and non-entity token counts.
@@ -84,7 +108,7 @@ type ActivityLog struct {
 	// Acquire "l" before fragmentLock if both must be held.
 	l sync.RWMutex
 
-	// fragmentLock protects enable, activeEntities, fragment, standbyFragmentsReceived
+	// fragmentLock protects enable, activeClients, fragment, standbyFragmentsReceived
 	fragmentLock sync.RWMutex
 
 	// enabled indicates if the activity log is enabled for this cluster.
@@ -145,15 +169,16 @@ type ActivityLog struct {
 	// for testing: is config currently being invalidated. protected by l
 	configInvalidationInProgress bool
 
-	// entityTracker tracks active entities this month.  Protected by fragmentLock.
-	entityTracker *EntityTracker
+	// clientTracker tracks active clients this month.  Protected by fragmentLock.
+	clientTracker *ClientTracker
 }
 
-type EntityTracker struct {
-	// All known active entities this month; use fragmentLock read-locked
+type ClientTracker struct {
+	// All known active clients this month; use fragmentLock read-locked
 	// to check whether it already exists.
-	activeEntities           map[string]struct{}
-	entityCountByNamespaceID map[string]uint64
+	activeClients               map[string]struct{}
+	entityCountByNamespaceID    map[string]uint64
+	nonEntityCountByNamespaceID map[string]uint64
 }
 
 // These non-persistent configuration options allow us to disable
@@ -185,19 +210,23 @@ func NewActivityLog(core *Core, logger log.Logger, view *BarrierView, metrics me
 		sendCh:          make(chan struct{}, 1), // buffered so it can be triggered by fragment size
 		writeCh:         make(chan struct{}, 1), // same for full segment
 		doneCh:          make(chan struct{}, 1),
-		entityTracker: &EntityTracker{
-			activeEntities:           make(map[string]struct{}),
-			entityCountByNamespaceID: make(map[string]uint64),
+		clientTracker: &ClientTracker{
+			activeClients:               make(map[string]struct{}),
+			entityCountByNamespaceID:    make(map[string]uint64),
+			nonEntityCountByNamespaceID: make(map[string]uint64),
 		},
 		currentSegment: segmentInfo{
 			startTimestamp: 0,
-			currentEntities: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-				Entities: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
+			currentClients: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+				Clients: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
 			},
+			// tokenCount is deprecated, but must still exist for the current segment
+			// so the fragment that was using TWEs before the 1.9 changes
+			// can be flushed to the current segment.
 			tokenCount: &activity.TokenCount{
 				CountByNamespaceID: make(map[string]uint64),
 			},
-			entitySequenceNumber: 0,
+			clientSequenceNumber: 0,
 		},
 		standbyFragmentsReceived: make([]*activity.LogFragment, 0),
 	}
@@ -251,7 +280,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentToStorageLocked(ctx context.Context, for
 	// Measure the current fragment
 	if localFragment != nil {
 		a.metrics.IncrCounterWithLabels([]string{"core", "activity", "fragment_size"},
-			float32(len(localFragment.Entities)),
+			float32(len(localFragment.Clients)),
 			[]metricsutil.Label{
 				{"type", "entity"},
 			})
@@ -269,15 +298,24 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentToStorageLocked(ctx context.Context, for
 		if f == nil {
 			continue
 		}
-		for _, e := range f.Entities {
+		for _, e := range f.Clients {
 			// We could sort by timestamp to see which is first.
 			// We'll ignore that; the order of the append above means
 			// that we choose entries in localFragment over those
 			// from standby nodes.
-			newEntities[e.EntityID] = e
+			newEntities[e.ClientID] = e
 			saveChanges = true
 		}
+		// As of 1.9, a fragment should no longer have any NonEntityTokens. However
+		// in order to not lose any information about the current segment during the
+		// month when the client upgrades to 1.9, we must retain this functionality.
 		for ns, val := range f.NonEntityTokens {
+			// We track these pre-1.9 values in the old location, which is
+			// a.currentSegment.tokenCount, as opposed to the counter that stores tokens
+			// without entities that have client IDs, namely
+			// a.clientTracker.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID. This preserves backward
+			// compatibility for the precomputedQueryWorkers and the segment storing
+			// logic.
 			a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID[ns] += val
 			saveChanges = true
 		}
@@ -288,49 +326,49 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentToStorageLocked(ctx context.Context, for
 	}
 
 	// Will all new entities fit?  If not, roll over to a new segment.
-	available := activitySegmentEntityCapacity - len(a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities)
+	available := activitySegmentEntityCapacity - len(a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients)
 	remaining := available - len(newEntities)
 	excess := 0
 	if remaining < 0 {
 		excess = -remaining
 	}
 
-	segmentEntities := a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities
-	excessEntities := make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, excess)
+	segmentClients := a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients
+	excessClients := make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, excess)
 	for _, record := range newEntities {
 		if available > 0 {
-			segmentEntities = append(segmentEntities, record)
+			segmentClients = append(segmentClients, record)
 			available -= 1
 		} else {
-			excessEntities = append(excessEntities, record)
+			excessClients = append(excessClients, record)
 		}
 	}
-	a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities = segmentEntities
+	a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients = segmentClients
 
 	err := a.saveCurrentSegmentInternal(ctx, force)
 	if err != nil {
 		// The current fragment(s) have already been placed into the in-memory
-		// segment, but we may lose any excess (in excessEntities).
+		// segment, but we may lose any excess (in excessClients).
 		// There isn't a good way to unwind the transaction on failure,
 		// so we may just lose some records.
 		return err
 	}
 
 	if available <= 0 {
-		if a.currentSegment.entitySequenceNumber >= activityLogMaxSegmentPerMonth {
+		if a.currentSegment.clientSequenceNumber >= activityLogMaxSegmentPerMonth {
 			// Cannot send as Warn because it will repeat too often,
 			// and disabling/renabling would be complicated.
-			a.logger.Trace("too many segments in current month", "dropped", len(excessEntities))
+			a.logger.Trace("too many segments in current month", "dropped", len(excessClients))
 			return nil
 		}
 
 		// Rotate to next segment
-		a.currentSegment.entitySequenceNumber += 1
-		if len(excessEntities) > activitySegmentEntityCapacity {
-			a.logger.Warn("too many new active entities, dropping tail", "entities", len(excessEntities))
-			excessEntities = excessEntities[:activitySegmentEntityCapacity]
+		a.currentSegment.clientSequenceNumber += 1
+		if len(excessClients) > activitySegmentEntityCapacity {
+			a.logger.Warn("too many new active entities, dropping tail", "entities", len(excessClients))
+			excessClients = excessClients[:activitySegmentEntityCapacity]
 		}
-		a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities = excessEntities
+		a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients = excessClients
 		err := a.saveCurrentSegmentInternal(ctx, force)
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
@@ -341,12 +379,20 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentToStorageLocked(ctx context.Context, for
 
 // :force: forces a save of tokens/entities even if the in-memory log is empty
 func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentInternal(ctx context.Context, force bool) error {
-	entityPath := fmt.Sprintf("log/entity/%d/%d", a.currentSegment.startTimestamp, a.currentSegment.entitySequenceNumber)
+	entityPath := fmt.Sprintf("log/entity/%d/%d", a.currentSegment.startTimestamp, a.currentSegment.clientSequenceNumber)
 	// RFC (VLT-120) defines this as 1-indexed, but it should be 0-indexed
 	tokenPath := fmt.Sprintf("log/directtokens/%d/0", a.currentSegment.startTimestamp)
 
-	if len(a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities) > 0 || force {
-		entities, err := proto.Marshal(a.currentSegment.currentEntities)
+	for _, client := range a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients {
+		// Explicitly catch and throw clear error message if client ID creation and storage
+		// results in a []byte that doesn't assert into a valid string.
+		if !utf8.ValidString(client.ClientID) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("client ID %q is not a valid string:", client.ClientID)
+		}
+	}
+
+	if len(a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients) > 0 || force {
+		entities, err := proto.Marshal(a.currentSegment.currentClients)
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
@@ -361,7 +407,22 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentInternal(ctx context.Context, force bool
 		}
 	}
 
+	// We must still allow for the tokenCount of the current segment to
+	// be written to storage, since if we remove this code we will incur
+	// data loss for one segment's worth of TWEs.
 	if len(a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) > 0 || force {
+		oldestVersion, oldestUpgradeTime, err := a.core.FindOldestVersionTimestamp()
+		switch {
+		case err != nil:
+			a.logger.Error(fmt.Sprintf("unable to retrieve oldest version timestamp: %s", err.Error()))
+		case len(a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) > 0 &&
+			(oldestUpgradeTime.Add(time.Duration(trackedTWESegmentPeriod * time.Hour)).Before(time.Now())):
+			a.logger.Error(fmt.Sprintf("storing nonzero token count over a month after vault was upgraded to %s", oldestVersion))
+		default:
+			if len(a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) > 0 {
+				a.logger.Info("storing nonzero token count")
+			}
+		}
 		tokenCount, err := proto.Marshal(a.currentSegment.tokenCount)
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
@@ -376,7 +437,6 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) saveCurrentSegmentInternal(ctx context.Context, force bool
 			return err
 		}
 	}
-
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -511,7 +571,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) WalkTokenSegments(ctx context.Context,
 			return err
 		}
 		if raw == nil {
-			a.logger.Warn("expected token segment not found", "startTime", startTime, "segment", path)
+			a.logger.Trace("no tokens without entities stored without tracking", "startTime", startTime, "segment", path)
 			continue
 		}
 		out := &activity.TokenCount{}
@@ -544,8 +604,8 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) loadPriorEntitySegment(ctx context.Context, startTime time
 	// Handle the (unlikely) case where the end of the month has been reached while background loading.
 	// Or the feature has been disabled.
 	if a.enabled && startTime.Unix() == a.currentSegment.startTimestamp {
-		for _, ent := range out.Entities {
-			a.entityTracker.addEntity(ent)
+		for _, ent := range out.Clients {
+			a.clientTracker.addClient(ent)
 		}
 	}
 	a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
@@ -554,10 +614,10 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) loadPriorEntitySegment(ctx context.Context, startTime time
 	return nil
 }
 
-// loadCurrentEntitySegment loads the most recent segment (for "this month") into memory
-// (to append new entries), and to the activeEntities to avoid duplication
+// loadCurrentClientSegment loads the most recent segment (for "this month") into memory
+// (to append new entries), and to the activeClients to avoid duplication
 // call with fragmentLock and l held
-func (a *ActivityLog) loadCurrentEntitySegment(ctx context.Context, startTime time.Time, sequenceNum uint64) error {
+func (a *ActivityLog) loadCurrentClientSegment(ctx context.Context, startTime time.Time, sequenceNum uint64) error {
 	path := activityEntityBasePath + fmt.Sprint(startTime.Unix()) + "/" + strconv.FormatUint(sequenceNum, 10)
 	data, err := a.view.Get(ctx, path)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -573,19 +633,19 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) loadCurrentEntitySegment(ctx context.Context, startTime ti
 	if !a.core.perfStandby {
 		a.currentSegment = segmentInfo{
 			startTimestamp: startTime.Unix(),
-			currentEntities: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-				Entities: out.Entities,
+			currentClients: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+				Clients: out.Clients,
 			},
 			tokenCount:           a.currentSegment.tokenCount,
-			entitySequenceNumber: sequenceNum,
+			clientSequenceNumber: sequenceNum,
 		}
 	} else {
 		// populate this for edge case checking (if end of month passes while background loading on standby)
 		a.currentSegment.startTimestamp = startTime.Unix()
 	}
 
-	for _, ent := range out.Entities {
-		a.entityTracker.addEntity(ent)
+	for _, ent := range out.Clients {
+		a.clientTracker.addClient(ent)
 	}
 
 	return nil
@@ -635,6 +695,10 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) loadTokenCount(ctx context.Context, startTime time.Time) e
 	if out.CountByNamespaceID == nil {
 		out.CountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
 	}
+
+	// We must load the tokenCount of the current segment into the activity log
+	// so that TWEs counted before the introduction of a client ID for TWEs are
+	// still reported in the partial client counts.
 	a.currentSegment.tokenCount = out
 
 	return nil
@@ -688,17 +752,22 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) newSegmentAtGivenTime(t time.Time) {
 // Should be called with fragmentLock and l held.
 func (a *ActivityLog) resetCurrentLog() {
 	a.currentSegment.startTimestamp = 0
-	a.currentSegment.currentEntities = &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
+	a.currentSegment.currentClients = &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+		Clients: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
 	}
+
+	// We must still initialize the tokenCount to recieve tokenCounts from fragments
+	// during the month where customers upgrade to 1.9
 	a.currentSegment.tokenCount = &activity.TokenCount{
 		CountByNamespaceID: make(map[string]uint64),
 	}
-	a.currentSegment.entitySequenceNumber = 0
+
+	a.currentSegment.clientSequenceNumber = 0
 
 	a.fragment = nil
-	a.entityTracker.activeEntities = make(map[string]struct{})
-	a.entityTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
+	a.clientTracker.activeClients = make(map[string]struct{})
+	a.clientTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
+	a.clientTracker.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
 	a.standbyFragmentsReceived = make([]*activity.LogFragment, 0)
 }
 
@@ -814,7 +883,9 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) refreshFromStoredLog(ctx context.Context, wg *sync.WaitGro
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	// load token counts from storage into memory
+	// load token counts from storage into memory. As of 1.9, this functionality
+	// is still required since without it, we would lose replicated TWE counts for the
+	// current segment.
 	if !a.core.perfStandby {
 		err = a.loadTokenCount(ctx, mostRecent)
 		if err != nil {
@@ -832,7 +903,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) refreshFromStoredLog(ctx context.Context, wg *sync.WaitGro
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	err = a.loadCurrentEntitySegment(ctx, mostRecent, lastSegment)
+	err = a.loadCurrentClientSegment(ctx, mostRecent, lastSegment)
 	if err != nil || lastSegment == 0 {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -1000,18 +1071,12 @@ func (c *Core) setupActivityLog(ctx context.Context, wg *sync.WaitGroup) error {
 		}()
 	}
 
-	// Link the token store to this core
-	c.tokenStore.SetActivityLog(manager)
-
 	return nil
 }
 
 // stopActivityLog removes the ActivityLog from Core
 // and frees any resources.
 func (c *Core) stopActivityLog() {
-	if c.tokenStore != nil {
-		c.tokenStore.SetActivityLog(nil)
-	}
 
 	// preSeal may run before startActivityLog got a chance to complete.
 	if c.activityLog != nil {
@@ -1109,8 +1174,9 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) perfStandbyFragmentWorker() {
 
 			// clear active entity set
 			a.fragmentLock.Lock()
-			a.entityTracker.activeEntities = make(map[string]struct{})
-			a.entityTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
+			a.clientTracker.activeClients = make(map[string]struct{})
+			a.clientTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
+			a.clientTracker.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID = make(map[string]uint64)
 			a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 
 			// Set timer for next month.
@@ -1288,17 +1354,21 @@ func (c *Core) ResetActivityLog() []*activity.LogFragment {
 	return allFragments
 }
 
-// AddEntityToFragment checks an entity ID for uniqueness and
+func (a *ActivityLog) AddEntityToFragment(entityID string, namespaceID string, timestamp int64) {
+	a.AddClientToFragment(entityID, namespaceID, timestamp, false)
+}
+
+// AddClientToFragment checks a client ID for uniqueness and
 // if not already present, adds it to the current fragment.
 // The timestamp is a Unix timestamp *without* nanoseconds, as that
 // is what token.CreationTime uses.
-func (a *ActivityLog) AddEntityToFragment(entityID string, namespaceID string, timestamp int64) {
+func (a *ActivityLog) AddClientToFragment(clientID string, namespaceID string, timestamp int64, isTWE bool) {
 	// Check whether entity ID already recorded
 	var present bool
 
 	a.fragmentLock.RLock()
 	if a.enabled {
-		_, present = a.entityTracker.activeEntities[entityID]
+		_, present = a.clientTracker.activeClients[clientID]
 	} else {
 		present = true
 	}
@@ -1312,33 +1382,28 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) AddEntityToFragment(entityID string, namespaceID string, t
 	defer a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 
 	// Re-check entity ID after re-acquiring lock
-	_, present = a.entityTracker.activeEntities[entityID]
+	_, present = a.clientTracker.activeClients[clientID]
 	if present {
 		return
 	}
 
 	a.createCurrentFragment()
 
-	entityRecord := &activity.EntityRecord{
-		EntityID:    entityID,
+	clientRecord := &activity.EntityRecord{
+		ClientID:    clientID,
 		NamespaceID: namespaceID,
 		Timestamp:   timestamp,
 	}
-	a.fragment.Entities = append(a.fragment.Entities, entityRecord)
-	a.entityTracker.addEntity(entityRecord)
-}
 
-func (a *ActivityLog) AddTokenToFragment(namespaceID string) {
-	a.fragmentLock.Lock()
-	defer a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
-
-	if !a.enabled {
-		return
+	// Track whether the clientID corresponds to a token without an entity or not.
+	// This field is backward compatible, as the default is 0, so records created
+	// from pre-1.9 activityLog code will automatically be marked as having an entity.
+	if isTWE {
+		clientRecord.NonEntity = true
 	}
 
-	a.createCurrentFragment()
-
-	a.fragment.NonEntityTokens[namespaceID] += 1
+	a.fragment.Clients = append(a.fragment.Clients, clientRecord)
+	a.clientTracker.addClient(clientRecord)
 }
 
 // Create the current fragment if it doesn't already exist.
@@ -1347,7 +1412,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) createCurrentFragment() {
 	if a.fragment == nil {
 		a.fragment = &activity.LogFragment{
 			OriginatingNode: a.nodeID,
-			Entities:        make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 120),
+			Clients:         make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 120),
 			NonEntityTokens: make(map[string]uint64),
 		}
 		a.fragmentCreation = time.Now().UTC()
@@ -1368,8 +1433,8 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) receivedFragment(fragment *activity.LogFragment) {
 		return
 	}
 
-	for _, e := range fragment.Entities {
-		a.entityTracker.addEntity(e)
+	for _, e := range fragment.Clients {
+		a.clientTracker.addClient(e)
 	}
 
 	a.standbyFragmentsReceived = append(a.standbyFragmentsReceived, fragment)
@@ -1518,19 +1583,74 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) loadConfigOrDefault(ctx context.Context) (activityConfig,
 	return config, nil
 }
 
-// HandleTokenCreation adds the TokenEntry to the current fragment of the activity log.
-// This currently occurs on token creation (for tokens without entities)
-// or token usage (for tokens associated with entities)
-func (a *ActivityLog) HandleTokenCreation(entry *logical.TokenEntry) {
-	// enabled state is checked in both of these functions,
-	// because we have to grab a mutex there anyway.
-	if entry.EntityID != "" {
-		a.AddEntityToFragment(entry.EntityID, entry.NamespaceID, entry.CreationTime)
-	} else {
-		if !IsWrappingToken(entry) {
-			a.AddTokenToFragment(entry.NamespaceID)
-		}
+// HandleTokenUsage adds the TokenEntry to the current fragment of the activity log.
+// This currently occurs on token usage only.
+func (a *ActivityLog) HandleTokenUsage(entry *logical.TokenEntry) {
+	// First, check if a is enabled, so as to avoid the cost of creating an ID for
+	// tokens without entities in the case where it not.
+	a.fragmentLock.RLock()
+	if !a.enabled {
+		a.fragmentLock.RUnlock()
+		return
 	}
+	a.fragmentLock.RUnlock()
+
+	// Do not count wrapping tokens in client count
+	if IsWrappingToken(entry) {
+		return
+	}
+
+	// Do not count root tokens in client count. This includes generated root tokens
+	// as well.
+	if len(entry.Policies) == 1 && entry.Policies[0] == "root" {
+		return
+	}
+
+	// Parse an entry's client ID and add it to the activity log
+	clientID, isTWE := a.CreateClientID(entry)
+	a.AddClientToFragment(clientID, entry.NamespaceID, entry.CreationTime, isTWE)
+}
+
+// CreateClientID returns the client ID, and a boolean which is false if the clientID
+// has an entity, and true otherwise
+func (a *ActivityLog) CreateClientID(entry *logical.TokenEntry) (string, bool) {
+	var clientIDInputBuilder strings.Builder
+
+	// if entry has an associated entity ID, return it
+	if entry.EntityID != "" {
+		return entry.EntityID, false
+	}
+
+	// The entry is associated with a TWE (token without entity). In this case
+	// we must create a client ID by calculating the following formula:
+	// clientID = SHA256(sorted policies + namespace)
+
+	// Step 1: Copy entry policies to a new struct
+	sortedPolicies := make([]string, len(entry.Policies))
+	copy(sortedPolicies, entry.Policies)
+
+	// Step 2: Sort and join copied policies
+	sort.Strings(sortedPolicies)
+	for _, pol := range sortedPolicies {
+		clientIDInputBuilder.WriteRune(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter)
+		clientIDInputBuilder.WriteString(pol)
+	}
+
+	// Step 3: Add namespace ID
+	clientIDInputBuilder.WriteRune(clientIDTWEDelimiter)
+	clientIDInputBuilder.WriteString(entry.NamespaceID)
+
+	if clientIDInputBuilder.Len() == 0 {
+		a.logger.Error("vault token with no entity ID, policies, or namespace was recorded " +
+			"in the activity log")
+		return "", true
+	}
+	// Step 4: Remove the first character in the string, as it's an unnecessary delimiter
+	clientIDInput := clientIDInputBuilder.String()[1:]
+
+	// Step 5: Hash the sum
+	hashed := sha256.Sum256([]byte(clientIDInput))
+	return base64.URLEncoding.EncodeToString(hashed[:]), true
 }
 
 func (a *ActivityLog) namespaceToLabel(ctx context.Context, nsID string) string {
@@ -1626,24 +1746,31 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) precomputedQueryWorker() error {
 	type NamespaceCounts struct {
 		// entityID -> present
 		Entities map[string]struct{}
-		// count
+		// count. This exists for backward compatibility
 		Tokens uint64
+		// clientID -> present
+		NonEntities map[string]struct{}
 	}
 	byNamespace := make(map[string]*NamespaceCounts)
 
 	createNs := func(namespaceID string) {
 		if _, namespacePresent := byNamespace[namespaceID]; !namespacePresent {
 			byNamespace[namespaceID] = &NamespaceCounts{
-				Entities: make(map[string]struct{}),
-				Tokens:   0,
+				Entities:    make(map[string]struct{}),
+				Tokens:      0,
+				NonEntities: make(map[string]struct{}),
 			}
 		}
 	}
 
 	walkEntities := func(l *activity.EntityActivityLog) {
-		for _, e := range l.Entities {
+		for _, e := range l.Clients {
 			createNs(e.NamespaceID)
-			byNamespace[e.NamespaceID].Entities[e.EntityID] = struct{}{}
+			if e.NonEntity == true {
+				byNamespace[e.NamespaceID].NonEntities[e.ClientID] = struct{}{}
+			} else {
+				byNamespace[e.NamespaceID].Entities[e.ClientID] = struct{}{}
+			}
 		}
 	}
 	walkTokens := func(l *activity.TokenCount) {
@@ -1689,7 +1816,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) precomputedQueryWorker() error {
 			pq.Namespaces = append(pq.Namespaces, &activity.NamespaceRecord{
 				NamespaceID:     nsID,
 				Entities:        uint64(len(counts.Entities)),
-				NonEntityTokens: counts.Tokens,
+				NonEntityTokens: counts.Tokens + uint64(len(counts.NonEntities)),
 			})
 
 			// If this is the most recent month, or the start of the reporting period, output
@@ -1702,6 +1829,13 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) precomputedQueryWorker() error {
 						{Name: "namespace", Value: a.namespaceToLabel(ctx, nsID)},
 					},
 				)
+				a.metrics.SetGaugeWithLabels(
+					[]string{"identity", "nonentity", "active", "monthly"},
+					float32(len(counts.NonEntities))+float32(counts.Tokens),
+					[]metricsutil.Label{
+						{Name: "namespace", Value: a.namespaceToLabel(ctx, nsID)},
+					},
+				)
 			} else if startTime == activePeriodStart {
 				a.metrics.SetGaugeWithLabels(
 					[]string{"identity", "entity", "active", "reporting_period"},
@@ -1710,6 +1844,13 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) precomputedQueryWorker() error {
 						{Name: "namespace", Value: a.namespaceToLabel(ctx, nsID)},
 					},
 				)
+				a.metrics.SetGaugeWithLabels(
+					[]string{"identity", "nonentity", "active", "reporting_period"},
+					float32(len(counts.NonEntities))+float32(counts.Tokens),
+					[]metricsutil.Label{
+						{Name: "namespace", Value: a.namespaceToLabel(ctx, nsID)},
+					},
+				)
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -1786,7 +1927,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) PartialMonthMetrics(ctx context.Context) ([]metricsutil.Ga
 		// Empty list
 		return []metricsutil.GaugeLabelValues{}, nil
 	}
-	count := len(a.entityTracker.activeEntities)
+	count := len(a.clientTracker.activeClients)
 
 	return []metricsutil.GaugeLabelValues{
 		{
@@ -1820,9 +1961,17 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) partialMonthClientCount(ctx context.Context) (map[string]i
 	responseData := make(map[string]interface{})
 	totalEntities := 0
 	totalTokens := 0
-
-	clientCountTable := createClientCountTable(a.entityTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID, a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID)
-
+	nonEntityTokensMapInterface, err := copystructure.Copy(a.clientTracker.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making deep copy of nonEntityCounts: %+w", err)
+	}
+	nonEntityTokensMap := nonEntityTokensMapInterface.(map[string]uint64)
+	// Merge the tokenCounts created pre-clientID with the newly counted
+	// clientID tokens, if tokenCounts exist.
+	for nsID, count := range a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID {
+		nonEntityTokensMap[nsID] += count
+	}
+	clientCountTable := createClientCountTable(a.clientTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID, nonEntityTokensMap)
 	queryNS, err := namespace.FromContext(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -1849,13 +1998,13 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) partialMonthClientCount(ctx context.Context) (map[string]i
 				NamespacePath: displayPath,
 				Counts: ClientCountResponse{
 					DistinctEntities: int(clients.distinctEntities),
-					NonEntityTokens:  int(clients.nonEntityTokens),
-					Clients:          int(clients.distinctEntities + clients.nonEntityTokens),
+					NonEntityTokens:  int(clients.distinctNonEntities),
+					Clients:          int(clients.distinctEntities + clients.distinctNonEntities),
 				},
 			})
 
 			totalEntities += int(clients.distinctEntities)
-			totalTokens += int(clients.nonEntityTokens)
+			totalTokens += int(clients.distinctNonEntities)
 
 		}
 	}
@@ -1872,30 +2021,33 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) partialMonthClientCount(ctx context.Context) (map[string]i
 	return responseData, nil
 }
 
-//createClientCountTable maps the entitycount and token count to the namespace id
-func createClientCountTable(entityMap map[string]uint64, tokenMap map[string]uint64) map[string]*clients {
+// createClientCountTable maps the entitycount and token count to the namespace id.
+func createClientCountTable(entityMap map[string]uint64, nonEntityMap map[string]uint64) map[string]*clients {
 	clientCountTable := make(map[string]*clients)
 	for nsID, count := range entityMap {
 		if _, ok := clientCountTable[nsID]; !ok {
-			clientCountTable[nsID] = &clients{distinctEntities: 0, nonEntityTokens: 0}
+			clientCountTable[nsID] = &clients{distinctEntities: 0, distinctNonEntities: 0}
 		}
 		clientCountTable[nsID].distinctEntities += count
 
 	}
 
-	for nsID, count := range tokenMap {
+	for nsID, count := range nonEntityMap {
 		if _, ok := clientCountTable[nsID]; !ok {
-			clientCountTable[nsID] = &clients{distinctEntities: 0, nonEntityTokens: 0}
+			clientCountTable[nsID] = &clients{distinctEntities: 0, distinctNonEntities: 0}
 		}
-		clientCountTable[nsID].nonEntityTokens += count
-
+		clientCountTable[nsID].distinctNonEntities += count
 	}
 	return clientCountTable
 }
 
-func (et *EntityTracker) addEntity(e *activity.EntityRecord) {
-	if _, ok := et.activeEntities[e.EntityID]; !ok {
-		et.activeEntities[e.EntityID] = struct{}{}
-		et.entityCountByNamespaceID[e.NamespaceID] += 1
+func (ct *ClientTracker) addClient(e *activity.EntityRecord) {
+	if _, ok := ct.activeClients[e.ClientID]; !ok {
+		ct.activeClients[e.ClientID] = struct{}{}
+		if e.NonEntity == true {
+			ct.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID[e.NamespaceID] += 1
+		} else {
+			ct.entityCountByNamespaceID[e.NamespaceID] += 1
+		}
 	}
 }
diff --git a/vault/activity_log_test.go b/vault/activity_log_test.go
index 0ba97d29d..a7fbe9d54 100644
--- a/vault/activity_log_test.go
+++ b/vault/activity_log_test.go
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ package vault
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/sha256"
+	"encoding/base64"
 	"encoding/json"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
@@ -52,7 +54,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Creation(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Errorf("mismatched node ID, %q vs %q", a.fragment.OriginatingNode, a.nodeID)
 	}
 
-	if a.fragment.Entities == nil {
+	if a.fragment.Clients == nil {
 		t.Fatal("no fragment entity slice")
 	}
 
@@ -60,13 +62,13 @@ func TestActivityLog_Creation(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatal("no fragment token map")
 	}
 
-	if len(a.fragment.Entities) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("wrong number of entities %v", len(a.fragment.Entities))
+	if len(a.fragment.Clients) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("wrong number of entities %v", len(a.fragment.Clients))
 	}
 
-	er := a.fragment.Entities[0]
-	if er.EntityID != entity_id {
-		t.Errorf("mimatched entity ID, %q vs %q", er.EntityID, entity_id)
+	er := a.fragment.Clients[0]
+	if er.ClientID != entity_id {
+		t.Errorf("mimatched entity ID, %q vs %q", er.ClientID, entity_id)
 	}
 	if er.NamespaceID != namespace_id {
 		t.Errorf("mimatched namespace ID, %q vs %q", er.NamespaceID, namespace_id)
@@ -112,7 +114,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Creation_WrappingTokens(t *testing.T) {
 	a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 	const namespace_id = "ns123"
 
-	a.HandleTokenCreation(&logical.TokenEntry{
+	a.HandleTokenUsage(&logical.TokenEntry{
 		Path:         "test",
 		Policies:     []string{responseWrappingPolicyName},
 		CreationTime: time.Now().Unix(),
@@ -126,7 +128,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Creation_WrappingTokens(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 
-	a.HandleTokenCreation(&logical.TokenEntry{
+	a.HandleTokenUsage(&logical.TokenEntry{
 		Path:         "test",
 		Policies:     []string{controlGroupPolicyName},
 		CreationTime: time.Now().Unix(),
@@ -144,12 +146,12 @@ func TestActivityLog_Creation_WrappingTokens(t *testing.T) {
 func checkExpectedEntitiesInMap(t *testing.T, a *ActivityLog, entityIDs []string) {
 	t.Helper()
 
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if len(activeEntities) != len(entityIDs) {
-		t.Fatalf("mismatched number of entities, expected %v got %v", len(entityIDs), activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if len(activeClients) != len(entityIDs) {
+		t.Fatalf("mismatched number of entities, expected %v got %v", len(entityIDs), activeClients)
 	}
 	for _, e := range entityIDs {
-		if _, present := activeEntities[e]; !present {
+		if _, present := activeClients[e]; !present {
 			t.Errorf("entity ID %q is missing", e)
 		}
 	}
@@ -176,11 +178,11 @@ func TestActivityLog_UniqueEntities(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatal("no current fragment")
 	}
 
-	if len(a.fragment.Entities) != 2 {
-		t.Fatalf("number of entities is %v", len(a.fragment.Entities))
+	if len(a.fragment.Clients) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("number of entities is %v", len(a.fragment.Clients))
 	}
 
-	for i, e := range a.fragment.Entities {
+	for i, e := range a.fragment.Clients {
 		expectedID := id1
 		expectedTime := t1.Unix()
 		expectedNS := "root"
@@ -188,8 +190,8 @@ func TestActivityLog_UniqueEntities(t *testing.T) {
 			expectedID = id2
 			expectedTime = t2.Unix()
 		}
-		if e.EntityID != expectedID {
-			t.Errorf("%v: expected %q, got %q", i, expectedID, e.EntityID)
+		if e.ClientID != expectedID {
+			t.Errorf("%v: expected %q, got %q", i, expectedID, e.ClientID)
 		}
 		if e.NamespaceID != expectedNS {
 			t.Errorf("%v: expected %q, got %q", i, expectedNS, e.NamespaceID)
@@ -202,6 +204,17 @@ func TestActivityLog_UniqueEntities(t *testing.T) {
 	checkExpectedEntitiesInMap(t, a, []string{id1, id2})
 }
 
+func readSegmentFromStorageNil(t *testing.T, c *Core, path string) {
+	t.Helper()
+	logSegment, err := c.barrier.Get(context.Background(), path)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if logSegment != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("expected non-nil log segment at %q", path)
+	}
+}
+
 func readSegmentFromStorage(t *testing.T, c *Core, path string) *logical.StorageEntry {
 	t.Helper()
 	logSegment, err := c.barrier.Get(context.Background(), path)
@@ -229,15 +242,15 @@ func expectMissingSegment(t *testing.T, c *Core, path string) {
 func expectedEntityIDs(t *testing.T, out *activity.EntityActivityLog, ids []string) {
 	t.Helper()
 
-	if len(out.Entities) != len(ids) {
-		t.Fatalf("entity log expected length %v, actual %v", len(ids), len(out.Entities))
+	if len(out.Clients) != len(ids) {
+		t.Fatalf("entity log expected length %v, actual %v", len(ids), len(out.Clients))
 	}
 
 	// Double loop, OK for small cases
 	for _, id := range ids {
 		found := false
-		for _, e := range out.Entities {
-			if e.EntityID == id {
+		for _, e := range out.Clients {
+			if e.ClientID == id {
 				found = true
 				break
 			}
@@ -271,8 +284,8 @@ func TestActivityLog_SaveTokensToStorage(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Errorf("fragment was not reset after write to storage")
 	}
 
-	protoSegment := readSegmentFromStorage(t, core, path)
 	out := &activity.TokenCount{}
+	protoSegment := readSegmentFromStorage(t, core, path)
 	err = proto.Unmarshal(protoSegment.Value, out)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("could not unmarshal protobuf: %v", err)
@@ -329,6 +342,75 @@ func TestActivityLog_SaveTokensToStorage(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestActivityLog_SaveTokensToStorageDoesNotUpdateTokenCount ensures that
+// a new fragment with nonEntityTokens will not update the currentSegment's
+// tokenCount, as this field will not be used going forward.
+func TestActivityLog_SaveTokensToStorageDoesNotUpdateTokenCount(t *testing.T) {
+	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
+	ctx := context.Background()
+
+	a := core.activityLog
+	a.SetStandbyEnable(ctx, true)
+	a.SetStartTimestamp(time.Now().Unix()) // set a nonzero segment
+
+	tokenPath := fmt.Sprintf("%sdirecttokens/%d/0", ActivityLogPrefix, a.GetStartTimestamp())
+	clientPath := fmt.Sprintf("sys/counters/activity/log/entity/%d/0", a.GetStartTimestamp())
+	// Create some entries without entityIDs
+	tokenEntryOne := logical.TokenEntry{NamespaceID: "ns1_id", Policies: []string{"hi"}}
+	entityEntry := logical.TokenEntry{EntityID: "foo", NamespaceID: "ns1_id", Policies: []string{"hi"}}
+
+	id, _ := a.CreateClientID(&tokenEntryOne)
+
+	for i := 0; i < 3; i++ {
+		a.HandleTokenUsage(&tokenEntryOne)
+	}
+	for i := 0; i < 2; i++ {
+		a.HandleTokenUsage(&entityEntry)
+	}
+	err := a.saveCurrentSegmentToStorage(ctx, false)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("got error writing TWEs to storage: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	// Assert that new elements have been written to the fragment
+	if a.fragment != nil {
+		t.Errorf("fragment was not reset after write to storage")
+	}
+
+	// Assert that no tokens have been written to the fragment
+	readSegmentFromStorageNil(t, core, tokenPath)
+
+	e := readSegmentFromStorage(t, core, clientPath)
+	out := &activity.EntityActivityLog{}
+	err = proto.Unmarshal(e.Value, out)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("could not unmarshal protobuf: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(out.Clients) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("added 3 distinct TWEs and 2 distinct entity tokens that should all result in the same ID, got: %d", len(out.Clients))
+	}
+	nonEntityTokenFlag := false
+	entityTokenFlag := false
+	for _, client := range out.Clients {
+		if client.NonEntity == true {
+			nonEntityTokenFlag = true
+			if client.ClientID != id {
+				t.Fatalf("expected a client ID of %s, but saved instead %s", id, client.ClientID)
+			}
+		}
+		if client.NonEntity == false {
+			entityTokenFlag = true
+			if client.ClientID != "foo" {
+				t.Fatalf("expected a client ID of %s, but saved instead %s", "foo", client.ClientID)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if !nonEntityTokenFlag || !entityTokenFlag {
+		t.Fatalf("Saved clients missing TWE: %v; saved clients missing entity token: %v", nonEntityTokenFlag, entityTokenFlag)
+	}
+}
+
 func TestActivityLog_SaveEntitiesToStorage(t *testing.T) {
 	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
 	ctx := context.Background()
@@ -392,12 +474,12 @@ func TestActivityLog_ReceivedFragment(t *testing.T) {
 
 	entityRecords := []*activity.EntityRecord{
 		{
-			EntityID:    ids[0],
+			ClientID:    ids[0],
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
 		{
-			EntityID:    ids[1],
+			ClientID:    ids[1],
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
@@ -405,7 +487,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_ReceivedFragment(t *testing.T) {
 
 	fragment := &activity.LogFragment{
 		OriginatingNode: "test-123",
-		Entities:        entityRecords,
+		Clients:         entityRecords,
 		NonEntityTokens: make(map[string]uint64),
 	}
 
@@ -475,7 +557,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
 	a := core.activityLog
 
-	// enabled check is now inside AddEntityToFragment
+	// enabled check is now inside AddClientToFragment
 	a.SetEnable(true)
 	a.SetStartTimestamp(time.Now().Unix()) // set a nonzero segment
 
@@ -522,8 +604,8 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("could not unmarshal protobuf: %v", err)
 	}
-	if len(entityLog0.Entities) != 7000 {
-		t.Fatalf("unexpected entity length. Expected %d, got %d", 7000, len(entityLog0.Entities))
+	if len(entityLog0.Clients) != 7000 {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected entity length. Expected %d, got %d", 7000, len(entityLog0.Clients))
 	}
 
 	// 7000 more local entities
@@ -539,12 +621,12 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	fragment1 := &activity.LogFragment{
 		OriginatingNode: "test-123",
-		Entities:        make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 100),
+		Clients:         make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 100),
 		NonEntityTokens: tokens1,
 	}
 	for i := 7000; i < 7100; i++ {
-		fragment1.Entities = append(fragment1.Entities, &activity.EntityRecord{
-			EntityID:    genID(i),
+		fragment1.Clients = append(fragment1.Clients, &activity.EntityRecord{
+			ClientID:    genID(i),
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   ts,
 		})
@@ -558,12 +640,12 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	fragment2 := &activity.LogFragment{
 		OriginatingNode: "test-123",
-		Entities:        make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 100),
+		Clients:         make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0, 100),
 		NonEntityTokens: tokens2,
 	}
 	for i := 14000; i < 14100; i++ {
-		fragment2.Entities = append(fragment2.Entities, &activity.EntityRecord{
-			EntityID:    genID(i),
+		fragment2.Clients = append(fragment2.Clients, &activity.EntityRecord{
+			ClientID:    genID(i),
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   ts,
 		})
@@ -592,9 +674,9 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("could not unmarshal protobuf: %v", err)
 	}
-	if len(entityLog0.Entities) != activitySegmentEntityCapacity {
+	if len(entityLog0.Clients) != activitySegmentEntityCapacity {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected entity length. Expected %d, got %d", activitySegmentEntityCapacity,
-			len(entityLog0.Entities))
+			len(entityLog0.Clients))
 	}
 
 	protoSegment1 := readSegmentFromStorage(t, core, path1)
@@ -604,17 +686,17 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatalf("could not unmarshal protobuf: %v", err)
 	}
 	expectedCount := 14100 - activitySegmentEntityCapacity
-	if len(entityLog1.Entities) != expectedCount {
+	if len(entityLog1.Clients) != expectedCount {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected entity length. Expected %d, got %d", expectedCount,
-			len(entityLog1.Entities))
+			len(entityLog1.Clients))
 	}
 
 	entityPresent := make(map[string]struct{})
-	for _, e := range entityLog0.Entities {
-		entityPresent[e.EntityID] = struct{}{}
+	for _, e := range entityLog0.Clients {
+		entityPresent[e.ClientID] = struct{}{}
 	}
-	for _, e := range entityLog1.Entities {
-		entityPresent[e.EntityID] = struct{}{}
+	for _, e := range entityLog1.Clients {
+		entityPresent[e.ClientID] = struct{}{}
 	}
 	for i := 0; i < 14100; i++ {
 		expectedID := genID(i)
@@ -622,7 +704,6 @@ func TestActivityLog_MultipleFragmentsAndSegments(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Fatalf("entity ID %v = %v not present", i, expectedID)
 		}
 	}
-
 	expectedNSCounts := map[string]uint64{
 		"root":  9,
 		"aaaaa": 11,
@@ -958,7 +1039,7 @@ func entityRecordsEqual(t *testing.T, record1, record2 []*activity.EntityRecord)
 			return false
 		}
 
-		idComp := strings.Compare(ei.EntityID, ej.EntityID)
+		idComp := strings.Compare(ei.ClientID, ej.ClientID)
 		if idComp == -1 {
 			return true
 		}
@@ -983,7 +1064,7 @@ func entityRecordsEqual(t *testing.T, record1, record2 []*activity.EntityRecord)
 
 	for i, a := range entitiesCopy1 {
 		b := entitiesCopy2[i]
-		if a.EntityID != b.EntityID || a.NamespaceID != b.NamespaceID || a.Timestamp != b.Timestamp {
+		if a.ClientID != b.ClientID || a.NamespaceID != b.NamespaceID || a.Timestamp != b.Timestamp {
 			return false
 		}
 	}
@@ -1000,49 +1081,50 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) resetEntitiesInMemory(t *testing.T) {
 	defer a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 	a.currentSegment = segmentInfo{
 		startTimestamp: time.Time{}.Unix(),
-		currentEntities: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-			Entities: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
+		currentClients: &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+			Clients: make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 0),
 		},
 		tokenCount:           a.currentSegment.tokenCount,
-		entitySequenceNumber: 0,
+		clientSequenceNumber: 0,
 	}
 
-	a.entityTracker.activeEntities = make(map[string]struct{})
+	a.clientTracker.activeClients = make(map[string]struct{})
 }
 
-func TestActivityLog_loadCurrentEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
+func TestActivityLog_loadCurrentClientSegment(t *testing.T) {
 	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
 	a := core.activityLog
-
-	// we must verify that loadCurrentEntitySegment doesn't overwrite the in-memory token count
+	// we must verify that loadCurrentClientSegment doesn't overwrite the in-memory token count
 	tokenRecords := make(map[string]uint64)
 	tokenRecords["test"] = 1
 	tokenCount := &activity.TokenCount{
 		CountByNamespaceID: tokenRecords,
 	}
-	a.SetTokenCount(tokenCount)
+	a.l.Lock()
+	a.currentSegment.tokenCount = tokenCount
+	a.l.Unlock()
 
 	// setup in-storage data to load for testing
 	entityRecords := []*activity.EntityRecord{
 		{
-			EntityID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
+			ClientID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
 		{
-			EntityID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
+			ClientID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
 	}
 	testEntities1 := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: entityRecords[:1],
+		Clients: entityRecords[:1],
 	}
 	testEntities2 := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: entityRecords[1:2],
+		Clients: entityRecords[1:2],
 	}
 	testEntities3 := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: entityRecords[:2],
+		Clients: entityRecords[:2],
 	}
 
 	time1 := time.Date(2020, 4, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC).Unix()
@@ -1084,11 +1166,19 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadCurrentEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
 
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	for _, tc := range testCases {
-		err := a.loadCurrentEntitySegment(ctx, time.Unix(tc.time, 0), tc.seqNum)
+		a.l.Lock()
+		a.fragmentLock.Lock()
+		// loadCurrentClientSegment requires us to grab the fragment lock and the
+		// activityLog lock, as per the comment in the loadCurrentClientSegment
+		// function
+		err := a.loadCurrentClientSegment(ctx, time.Unix(tc.time, 0), tc.seqNum)
+		a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
+		a.l.Unlock()
+
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("got error loading data for %q: %v", tc.path, err)
 		}
-		if !reflect.DeepEqual(a.GetCountByNamespaceID(), tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) {
+		if !reflect.DeepEqual(a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID(), tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) {
 			t.Errorf("this function should not wipe out the in-memory token count")
 		}
 
@@ -1104,13 +1194,13 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadCurrentEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 
 		currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-		if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Entities, tc.entities.Entities) {
-			t.Errorf("bad data loaded. expected: %v, got: %v for path %q", tc.entities.Entities, currentEntities, tc.path)
+		if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Clients, tc.entities.Clients) {
+			t.Errorf("bad data loaded. expected: %v, got: %v for path %q", tc.entities.Clients, currentEntities, tc.path)
 		}
 
-		activeEntities := core.GetActiveEntities()
-		if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, tc.entities.Entities) {
-			t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v for path %q", tc.entities.Entities, activeEntities, tc.path)
+		activeClients := core.GetActiveClients()
+		if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, tc.entities.Clients) {
+			t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v for path %q", tc.entities.Clients, activeClients, tc.path)
 		}
 
 		a.resetEntitiesInMemory(t)
@@ -1125,21 +1215,21 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadPriorEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
 	// setup in-storage data to load for testing
 	entityRecords := []*activity.EntityRecord{
 		{
-			EntityID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
+			ClientID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
 		{
-			EntityID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
+			ClientID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
 			NamespaceID: "root",
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		},
 	}
 	testEntities1 := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: entityRecords[:1],
+		Clients: entityRecords[:1],
 	}
 	testEntities2 := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: entityRecords[:2],
+		Clients: entityRecords[:2],
 	}
 
 	time1 := time.Date(2020, 4, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC).Unix()
@@ -1190,7 +1280,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadPriorEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
 		if tc.refresh {
 			a.l.Lock()
 			a.fragmentLock.Lock()
-			a.entityTracker.activeEntities = make(map[string]struct{})
+			a.clientTracker.activeClients = make(map[string]struct{})
 			a.currentSegment.startTimestamp = tc.time
 			a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 			a.l.Unlock()
@@ -1201,13 +1291,15 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadPriorEntitySegment(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Fatalf("got error loading data for %q: %v", tc.path, err)
 		}
 
-		activeEntities := core.GetActiveEntities()
-		if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, tc.entities.Entities) {
-			t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v for path %q", tc.entities.Entities, activeEntities, tc.path)
+		activeClients := core.GetActiveClients()
+		if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, tc.entities.Clients) {
+			t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v for path %q", tc.entities.Clients, activeClients, tc.path)
 		}
 	}
 }
 
+// TestActivityLog_loadTokenCount ensures that previous segments with tokenCounts
+// can still be read from storage, even when TWE's have distinct, tracked clientIDs.
 func TestActivityLog_loadTokenCount(t *testing.T) {
 	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
 	a := core.activityLog
@@ -1241,19 +1333,18 @@ func TestActivityLog_loadTokenCount(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	}
 
+	ctx := context.Background()
 	for _, tc := range testCases {
 		WriteToStorage(t, core, ActivityLogPrefix+tc.path, data)
 	}
 
-	ctx := context.Background()
 	for _, tc := range testCases {
-		// a.currentSegment.tokenCount doesn't need to be wiped each iter since it happens in loadTokenSegment()
 		err := a.loadTokenCount(ctx, time.Unix(tc.time, 0))
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("got error loading data for %q: %v", tc.path, err)
 		}
 
-		nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+		nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 		if !reflect.DeepEqual(nsCount, tokenRecords) {
 			t.Errorf("bad token count loaded. expected: %v got: %v for path %q", tokenRecords, nsCount, tc.path)
 		}
@@ -1300,7 +1391,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_StopAndRestart(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 
 	a = core.activityLog
-	if a.GetCountByNamespaceID() == nil {
+	if a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID() == nil {
 		t.Fatalf("nil token count map")
 	}
 
@@ -1327,17 +1418,17 @@ func setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t *testing.T, base time.Time, includeEntities
 	if includeEntities {
 		entityRecords = []*activity.EntityRecord{
 			{
-				EntityID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
+				ClientID:    "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
 				NamespaceID: namespace.RootNamespaceID,
 				Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 			},
 			{
-				EntityID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
+				ClientID:    "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
 				NamespaceID: namespace.RootNamespaceID,
 				Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 			},
 			{
-				EntityID:    "33333333-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
+				ClientID:    "33333333-2222-2222-2222-222222222222",
 				NamespaceID: namespace.RootNamespaceID,
 				Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 			},
@@ -1345,7 +1436,7 @@ func setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t *testing.T, base time.Time, includeEntities
 		if constants.IsEnterprise {
 			entityRecords = append(entityRecords, []*activity.EntityRecord{
 				{
-					EntityID:    "44444444-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
+					ClientID:    "44444444-1111-1111-1111-111111111111",
 					NamespaceID: "ns1",
 					Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 				},
@@ -1353,7 +1444,7 @@ func setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t *testing.T, base time.Time, includeEntities
 		}
 		for i, entityRecord := range entityRecords {
 			entityData, err := proto.Marshal(&activity.EntityActivityLog{
-				Entities: []*activity.EntityRecord{entityRecord},
+				Clients: []*activity.EntityRecord{entityRecord},
 			})
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf(err.Error())
@@ -1393,7 +1484,7 @@ func setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t *testing.T, base time.Time, includeEntities
 }
 
 func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLog(t *testing.T) {
-	a, expectedEntityRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, true)
+	a, expectedClientRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, true)
 	a.SetEnable(true)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
@@ -1404,33 +1495,92 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLog(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 
 	expectedActive := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[1:],
 	}
 	expectedCurrent := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[len(expectedEntityRecords)-1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[len(expectedClientRecords)-1:],
 	}
 
 	currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Entities, expectedCurrent.Entities) {
+	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Clients, expectedCurrent.Clients) {
 		// we only expect the newest entity segment to be loaded (for the current month)
 		t.Errorf("bad activity entity logs loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedCurrent, currentEntities)
 	}
 
-	nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+	nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(nsCount, expectedTokenCounts) {
 		// we expect all token counts to be loaded
 		t.Errorf("bad activity token counts loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedTokenCounts, nsCount)
 	}
 
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, expectedActive.Entities) {
-		// we expect activeEntities to be loaded for the entire month
-		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Entities, activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, expectedActive.Clients) {
+		// we expect activeClients to be loaded for the entire month
+		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Clients, activeClients)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestCreateClientID verifies that CreateClientID uses the entity ID for a token
+// entry if one exists, and creates an appropriate client ID otherwise.
+func TestCreateClientID(t *testing.T) {
+	entry := logical.TokenEntry{NamespaceID: "namespaceFoo", Policies: []string{"bar", "baz", "foo", "banana"}}
+	activityLog := ActivityLog{}
+	id, isTWE := activityLog.CreateClientID(&entry)
+	if !isTWE {
+		t.Fatalf("TWE token should return true value in isTWE bool")
+	}
+	expectedIDPlaintext := "banana" + string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "bar" +
+		string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "baz" +
+		string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "foo" + string(clientIDTWEDelimiter) + "namespaceFoo"
+
+	hashed := sha256.Sum256([]byte(expectedIDPlaintext))
+	expectedID := base64.URLEncoding.EncodeToString(hashed[:])
+	if expectedID != id {
+		t.Fatalf("wrong ID: expected %s, found %s", expectedID, id)
+	}
+	// Test with entityID
+	entry = logical.TokenEntry{EntityID: "entityFoo", NamespaceID: "namespaceFoo", Policies: []string{"bar", "baz", "foo", "banana"}}
+	id, isTWE = activityLog.CreateClientID(&entry)
+	if isTWE {
+		t.Fatalf("token with entity should return false value in isTWE bool")
+	}
+	if id != "entityFoo" {
+		t.Fatalf("client ID should be entity ID")
+	}
+
+	// Test without namespace
+	entry = logical.TokenEntry{Policies: []string{"bar", "baz", "foo", "banana"}}
+	id, isTWE = activityLog.CreateClientID(&entry)
+	if !isTWE {
+		t.Fatalf("TWE token should return true value in isTWE bool")
+	}
+	expectedIDPlaintext = "banana" + string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "bar" +
+		string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "baz" +
+		string(sortedPoliciesTWEDelimiter) + "foo" + string(clientIDTWEDelimiter)
+
+	hashed = sha256.Sum256([]byte(expectedIDPlaintext))
+	expectedID = base64.URLEncoding.EncodeToString(hashed[:])
+	if expectedID != id {
+		t.Fatalf("wrong ID: expected %s, found %s", expectedID, id)
+	}
+
+	// Test without policies
+	entry = logical.TokenEntry{NamespaceID: "namespaceFoo"}
+	id, isTWE = activityLog.CreateClientID(&entry)
+	if !isTWE {
+		t.Fatalf("TWE token should return true value in isTWE bool")
+	}
+	expectedIDPlaintext = "namespaceFoo"
+
+	hashed = sha256.Sum256([]byte(expectedIDPlaintext))
+	expectedID = base64.URLEncoding.EncodeToString(hashed[:])
+	if expectedID != id {
+		t.Fatalf("wrong ID: expected %s, found %s", expectedID, id)
 	}
 }
 
 func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogWithBackgroundLoadingCancelled(t *testing.T) {
-	a, expectedEntityRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, true)
+	a, expectedClientRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, true)
 	a.SetEnable(true)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
@@ -1448,25 +1598,25 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogWithBackgroundLoadingCancelled(t *testi
 	wg.Wait()
 
 	expected := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[len(expectedEntityRecords)-1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[len(expectedClientRecords)-1:],
 	}
 
 	currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Entities, expected.Entities) {
+	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Clients, expected.Clients) {
 		// we only expect the newest entity segment to be loaded (for the current month)
 		t.Errorf("bad activity entity logs loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expected, currentEntities)
 	}
 
-	nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+	nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(nsCount, expectedTokenCounts) {
 		// we expect all token counts to be loaded
 		t.Errorf("bad activity token counts loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedTokenCounts, nsCount)
 	}
 
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, expected.Entities) {
-		// we only expect activeEntities to be loaded for the newest segment (for the current month)
-		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expected.Entities, activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, expected.Clients) {
+		// we only expect activeClients to be loaded for the newest segment (for the current month)
+		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expected.Clients, activeClients)
 	}
 }
 
@@ -1484,7 +1634,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogContextCancelled(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogNoTokens(t *testing.T) {
-	a, expectedEntityRecords, _ := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, false)
+	a, expectedClientRecords, _ := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, time.Now().UTC(), true, false)
 	a.SetEnable(true)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
@@ -1495,24 +1645,24 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogNoTokens(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 
 	expectedActive := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[1:],
 	}
 	expectedCurrent := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[len(expectedEntityRecords)-1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[len(expectedClientRecords)-1:],
 	}
 
 	currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Entities, expectedCurrent.Entities) {
+	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Clients, expectedCurrent.Clients) {
 		// we expect all segments for the current month to be loaded
 		t.Errorf("bad activity entity logs loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedCurrent, currentEntities)
 	}
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, expectedActive.Entities) {
-		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Entities, activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, expectedActive.Clients) {
+		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Clients, activeClients)
 	}
 
 	// we expect no tokens
-	nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+	nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 	if len(nsCount) > 0 {
 		t.Errorf("expected no token counts to be loaded. got: %v", nsCount)
 	}
@@ -1529,19 +1679,19 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogNoEntities(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	wg.Wait()
 
-	nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+	nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(nsCount, expectedTokenCounts) {
 		// we expect all token counts to be loaded
 		t.Errorf("bad activity token counts loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedTokenCounts, nsCount)
 	}
 
 	currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-	if len(currentEntities.Entities) > 0 {
+	if len(currentEntities.Clients) > 0 {
 		t.Errorf("expected no current entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", currentEntities)
 	}
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if len(activeEntities) > 0 {
-		t.Errorf("expected no active entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if len(activeClients) > 0 {
+		t.Errorf("expected no active entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", activeClients)
 	}
 }
 
@@ -1583,7 +1733,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogPreviousMonth(t *testing.T) {
 	// can handle end of month rotations
 	monthStart := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Now().UTC())
 	oneMonthAgoStart := timeutil.StartOfPreviousMonth(monthStart)
-	a, expectedEntityRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, oneMonthAgoStart, true, true)
+	a, expectedClientRecords, expectedTokenCounts := setupActivityRecordsInStorage(t, oneMonthAgoStart, true, true)
 	a.SetEnable(true)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
@@ -1594,28 +1744,28 @@ func TestActivityLog_refreshFromStoredLogPreviousMonth(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 
 	expectedActive := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[1:],
 	}
 	expectedCurrent := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-		Entities: expectedEntityRecords[len(expectedEntityRecords)-1:],
+		Clients: expectedClientRecords[len(expectedClientRecords)-1:],
 	}
 
 	currentEntities := a.GetCurrentEntities()
-	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Entities, expectedCurrent.Entities) {
+	if !entityRecordsEqual(t, currentEntities.Clients, expectedCurrent.Clients) {
 		// we only expect the newest entity segment to be loaded (for the current month)
 		t.Errorf("bad activity entity logs loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedCurrent, currentEntities)
 	}
 
-	nsCount := a.GetCountByNamespaceID()
+	nsCount := a.GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID()
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(nsCount, expectedTokenCounts) {
 		// we expect all token counts to be loaded
 		t.Errorf("bad activity token counts loaded. expected: %v got: %v", expectedTokenCounts, nsCount)
 	}
 
-	activeEntities := a.core.GetActiveEntities()
-	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeEntities, expectedActive.Entities) {
-		// we expect activeEntities to be loaded for the entire month
-		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Entities, activeEntities)
+	activeClients := a.core.GetActiveClients()
+	if !ActiveEntitiesEqual(activeClients, expectedActive.Clients) {
+		// we expect activeClients to be loaded for the entire month
+		t.Errorf("bad data loaded into active entities. expected only set of EntityID from %v in %v", expectedActive.Clients, activeClients)
 	}
 }
 
@@ -1911,6 +2061,404 @@ func TestActivityLog_EndOfMonth(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestActivityLog_CalculatePrecomputedQueriesWithMixedTWEs tests that precomputed
+// queries work when new months have tokens without entities saved in the TokenCount,
+// as clients, or both.
+func TestActivityLog_CalculatePrecomputedQueriesWithMixedTWEs(t *testing.T) {
+	timeutil.SkipAtEndOfMonth(t)
+
+	// root namespace will have TWEs with clientIDs and untracked TWEs
+	// ns1 namespace will only have TWEs with clientIDs
+	// aaaa, bbbb, and cccc namespace will only have untracked TWEs
+	// 1. January tests clientIDs from a segment don't roll over into another month's
+	// client counts in same segment.
+	// 2. August tests that client counts work when split across segment.
+	// 3. September tests that an entire segment in a month yields correct cc.
+	// 4. October tests that a month with only a segment rolled over from previous
+	// month yields correct client count.
+
+	january := time.Date(2020, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	august := time.Date(2020, 8, 15, 12, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	september := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 9, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+	october := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+	november := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 11, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+
+	core, _, _, sink := TestCoreUnsealedWithMetrics(t)
+	a := core.activityLog
+	ctx := namespace.RootContext(nil)
+
+	// Generate overlapping sets of entity IDs from this list.
+
+	clientRecords := make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 45)
+	clientNamespaces := []string{"root", "aaaaa", "bbbbb", "root", "root", "ccccc", "root", "bbbbb", "rrrrr"}
+
+	for i := range clientRecords {
+		clientRecords[i] = &activity.EntityRecord{
+			ClientID:    fmt.Sprintf("111122222-3333-4444-5555-%012v", i),
+			NamespaceID: clientNamespaces[i/5],
+			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
+			NonEntity:   true,
+		}
+	}
+
+	toInsert := []struct {
+		StartTime int64
+		Segment   uint64
+		Clients   []*activity.EntityRecord
+	}{
+		// January, should not be included
+		{
+			january.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[40:45],
+		},
+		{
+			august.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[:13],
+		},
+		{
+			august.Unix(),
+			1,
+			clientRecords[13:20],
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			1,
+			clientRecords[10:30],
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			2,
+			clientRecords[15:40],
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			3,
+			clientRecords[15:40],
+		},
+		{
+			october.Unix(),
+			3,
+			clientRecords[17:23],
+		},
+	}
+
+	// Insert token counts for all 3 segments
+	toInsertTokenCount := []struct {
+		StartTime          int64
+		Segment            uint64
+		CountByNamespaceID map[string]uint64
+	}{
+		{
+			january.Unix(),
+			0,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 3, "ns1": 5},
+		},
+		{
+			august.Unix(),
+			0,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 40, "ns1": 50},
+		},
+		{
+			august.Unix(),
+			1,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 60, "ns1": 70},
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			1,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 400, "ns1": 500},
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			2,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 700, "ns1": 800},
+		},
+		{
+			september.Unix(),
+			3,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 0, "ns1": 0},
+		},
+		{
+			october.Unix(),
+			3,
+			map[string]uint64{"root": 0, "ns1": 0},
+		},
+	}
+	doInsertTokens := func(i int) {
+		segment := toInsertTokenCount[i]
+		tc := &activity.TokenCount{
+			CountByNamespaceID: segment.CountByNamespaceID,
+		}
+		data, err := proto.Marshal(tc)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		tokenPath := fmt.Sprintf("%vdirecttokens/%v/%v", ActivityLogPrefix, segment.StartTime, segment.Segment)
+		WriteToStorage(t, core, tokenPath, data)
+	}
+
+	// Note that precomputedQuery worker doesn't filter
+	// for times <= the one it was asked to do. Is that a problem?
+	// Here, it means that we can't insert everything *first* and do multiple
+	// test cases, we have to write logs incrementally.
+	doInsert := func(i int) {
+		segment := toInsert[i]
+		eal := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+			Clients: segment.Clients,
+		}
+		data, err := proto.Marshal(eal)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		path := fmt.Sprintf("%ventity/%v/%v", ActivityLogPrefix, segment.StartTime, segment.Segment)
+		WriteToStorage(t, core, path, data)
+	}
+	expectedCounts := []struct {
+		StartTime   time.Time
+		EndTime     time.Time
+		ByNamespace map[string]int
+	}{
+		// First test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(august),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  110, // 10 TWEs + 50 + 60 direct tokens
+				"ns1":   120, // 60 + 70 direct tokens
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		// Second test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(september),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  1220, // 110 from august + 10 non-overlapping TWEs in September, + 400 + 700 direct tokens in september
+				"ns1":   1420, // 120 from August + 500 + 800 direct tokens in september
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			september,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(september),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  1115, // 15 TWEs in September, + 400 + 700 direct tokens
+				"ns1":   1300, // 500 direct tokens in september
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		// Third test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  1220, // 1220 from Aug to Sept
+				"ns1":   1420, // 1420 from Aug to Sept
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			september,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  1115, // 1115 in Sept
+				"ns1":   1300, // 1300 in Sept
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			october,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root": 6, // 6 overlapping TWEs in October
+				"ns1":  0, // No new direct tokens in october
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	checkPrecomputedQuery := func(i int) {
+		t.Helper()
+		pq, err := a.queryStore.Get(ctx, expectedCounts[i].StartTime, expectedCounts[i].EndTime)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if pq == nil {
+			t.Errorf("empty result for %v -- %v", expectedCounts[i].StartTime, expectedCounts[i].EndTime)
+		}
+		if len(pq.Namespaces) != len(expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched number of namespaces, expected %v got %v",
+				len(expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace), len(pq.Namespaces))
+		}
+		for _, nsRecord := range pq.Namespaces {
+			val, ok := expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace[nsRecord.NamespaceID]
+			if !ok {
+				t.Errorf("unexpected namespace %v", nsRecord.NamespaceID)
+				continue
+			}
+			if uint64(val) != nsRecord.NonEntityTokens {
+				t.Errorf("wrong number of entities in %v: expected %v, got %v",
+					nsRecord.NamespaceID, val, nsRecord.NonEntityTokens)
+			}
+		}
+		if !pq.StartTime.Equal(expectedCounts[i].StartTime) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched start time: expected %v got %v",
+				expectedCounts[i].StartTime, pq.StartTime)
+		}
+		if !pq.EndTime.Equal(expectedCounts[i].EndTime) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched end time: expected %v got %v",
+				expectedCounts[i].EndTime, pq.EndTime)
+		}
+	}
+
+	testCases := []struct {
+		InsertUpTo   int // index in the toInsert array
+		PrevMonth    int64
+		NextMonth    int64
+		ExpectedUpTo int // index in the expectedCounts array
+	}{
+		{
+			2, // jan-august
+			august.Unix(),
+			september.Unix(),
+			0, // august-august
+		},
+		{
+			5, // jan-sept
+			september.Unix(),
+			october.Unix(),
+			2, // august-september
+		},
+		{
+			6, // jan-oct
+			october.Unix(),
+			november.Unix(),
+			5, // august-october
+		},
+	}
+
+	inserted := -1
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		t.Logf("tc %+v", tc)
+
+		// Persists across loops
+		for inserted < tc.InsertUpTo {
+			inserted += 1
+			t.Logf("inserting segment %v", inserted)
+			doInsert(inserted)
+			doInsertTokens(inserted)
+		}
+
+		intent := &ActivityIntentLog{
+			PreviousMonth: tc.PrevMonth,
+			NextMonth:     tc.NextMonth,
+		}
+		data, err := json.Marshal(intent)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		WriteToStorage(t, core, "sys/counters/activity/endofmonth", data)
+
+		// Pretend we've successfully rolled over to the following month
+		a.SetStartTimestamp(tc.NextMonth)
+
+		err = a.precomputedQueryWorker()
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+
+		expectMissingSegment(t, core, "sys/counters/activity/endofmonth")
+
+		for i := 0; i <= tc.ExpectedUpTo; i++ {
+			checkPrecomputedQuery(i)
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Check metrics on the last precomputed query
+	// (otherwise we need a way to reset the in-memory metrics between test cases.)
+
+	intervals := sink.Data()
+	// Test crossed an interval boundary, don't try to deal with it.
+	if len(intervals) > 1 {
+		t.Skip("Detected interval crossing.")
+	}
+	expectedGauges := []struct {
+		Name           string
+		NamespaceLabel string
+		Value          float32
+	}{
+		// october values
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"root",
+			6.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"deleted-bbbbb", // No namespace entry for this fake ID
+			10.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"deleted-ccccc",
+			5.0,
+		},
+		// august-september values
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"root",
+			1220.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-aaaaa",
+			5.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-bbbbb",
+			10.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-ccccc",
+			5.0,
+		},
+	}
+	for _, g := range expectedGauges {
+		found := false
+		for _, actual := range intervals[0].Gauges {
+			actualNamespaceLabel := ""
+			for _, l := range actual.Labels {
+				if l.Name == "namespace" {
+					actualNamespaceLabel = l.Value
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if actual.Name == g.Name && actualNamespaceLabel == g.NamespaceLabel {
+				found = true
+				if actual.Value != g.Value {
+					t.Errorf("Mismatched value for %v %v %v != %v",
+						g.Name, g.NamespaceLabel, actual.Value, g.Value)
+				}
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		if !found {
+			t.Errorf("No guage found for %v %v",
+				g.Name, g.NamespaceLabel)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 func TestActivityLog_SaveAfterDisable(t *testing.T) {
 	core, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
 	ctx := namespace.RootContext(nil)
@@ -1976,7 +2524,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Precompute(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i := range entityRecords {
 		entityRecords[i] = &activity.EntityRecord{
-			EntityID:    fmt.Sprintf("111122222-3333-4444-5555-%012v", i),
+			ClientID:    fmt.Sprintf("111122222-3333-4444-5555-%012v", i),
 			NamespaceID: entityNamespaces[i/5],
 			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
 		}
@@ -1985,7 +2533,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Precompute(t *testing.T) {
 	toInsert := []struct {
 		StartTime int64
 		Segment   uint64
-		Entities  []*activity.EntityRecord
+		Clients   []*activity.EntityRecord
 	}{
 		// January, should not be included
 		{
@@ -2033,7 +2581,7 @@ func TestActivityLog_Precompute(t *testing.T) {
 	doInsert := func(i int) {
 		segment := toInsert[i]
 		eal := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
-			Entities: segment.Entities,
+			Clients: segment.Clients,
 		}
 		data, err := proto.Marshal(eal)
 		if err != nil {
@@ -2282,6 +2830,341 @@ func TestActivityLog_Precompute(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+//TestActivityLog_PrecomputeNonEntityTokensWithID is the same test as
+// TestActivityLog_Precompute, except all the clients are tokens without
+// entities. This ensures the deduplication logic and separation logic between
+// entities and TWE clients is correct.
+func TestActivityLog_PrecomputeNonEntityTokensWithID(t *testing.T) {
+	timeutil.SkipAtEndOfMonth(t)
+
+	january := time.Date(2020, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	august := time.Date(2020, 8, 15, 12, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	september := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 9, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+	october := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+	november := timeutil.StartOfMonth(time.Date(2020, 11, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+
+	core, _, _, sink := TestCoreUnsealedWithMetrics(t)
+	a := core.activityLog
+	ctx := namespace.RootContext(nil)
+
+	// Generate overlapping sets of entity IDs from this list.
+	//   january:      40-44                                          RRRRR
+	//   first month:   0-19  RRRRRAAAAABBBBBRRRRR
+	//   second month: 10-29            BBBBBRRRRRRRRRRCCCCC
+	//   third month:  15-39                 RRRRRRRRRRCCCCCRRRRRBBBBB
+
+	clientRecords := make([]*activity.EntityRecord, 45)
+	clientNamespaces := []string{"root", "aaaaa", "bbbbb", "root", "root", "ccccc", "root", "bbbbb", "rrrrr"}
+
+	for i := range clientRecords {
+		clientRecords[i] = &activity.EntityRecord{
+			ClientID:    fmt.Sprintf("111122222-3333-4444-5555-%012v", i),
+			NamespaceID: clientNamespaces[i/5],
+			Timestamp:   time.Now().Unix(),
+			NonEntity:   true,
+		}
+	}
+
+	toInsert := []struct {
+		StartTime int64
+		Segment   uint64
+		Clients   []*activity.EntityRecord
+	}{
+		// January, should not be included
+		{
+			january.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[40:45],
+		},
+		// Artifically split August and October
+		{ // 1
+			august.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[:13],
+		},
+		{ // 2
+			august.Unix(),
+			1,
+			clientRecords[13:20],
+		},
+		{ // 3
+			september.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[10:30],
+		},
+		{ // 4
+			october.Unix(),
+			0,
+			clientRecords[15:40],
+		},
+		{
+			october.Unix(),
+			1,
+			clientRecords[15:40],
+		},
+		{
+			october.Unix(),
+			2,
+			clientRecords[17:23],
+		},
+	}
+
+	// Note that precomputedQuery worker doesn't filter
+	// for times <= the one it was asked to do. Is that a problem?
+	// Here, it means that we can't insert everything *first* and do multiple
+	// test cases, we have to write logs incrementally.
+	doInsert := func(i int) {
+		segment := toInsert[i]
+		eal := &activity.EntityActivityLog{
+			Clients: segment.Clients,
+		}
+		data, err := proto.Marshal(eal)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		path := fmt.Sprintf("%ventity/%v/%v", ActivityLogPrefix, segment.StartTime, segment.Segment)
+		WriteToStorage(t, core, path, data)
+	}
+
+	expectedCounts := []struct {
+		StartTime   time.Time
+		EndTime     time.Time
+		ByNamespace map[string]int
+	}{
+		// First test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(august),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  10,
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		// Second test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(september),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  15,
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 5,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			september,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(september),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  10,
+				"bbbbb": 5,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		// Third test case
+		{
+			august,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  20,
+				"aaaaa": 5,
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			september,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  15,
+				"bbbbb": 10,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			october,
+			timeutil.EndOfMonth(october),
+			map[string]int{
+				"root":  15,
+				"bbbbb": 5,
+				"ccccc": 5,
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	checkPrecomputedQuery := func(i int) {
+		t.Helper()
+		pq, err := a.queryStore.Get(ctx, expectedCounts[i].StartTime, expectedCounts[i].EndTime)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if pq == nil {
+			t.Errorf("empty result for %v -- %v", expectedCounts[i].StartTime, expectedCounts[i].EndTime)
+		}
+		if len(pq.Namespaces) != len(expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched number of namespaces, expected %v got %v",
+				len(expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace), len(pq.Namespaces))
+		}
+		for _, nsRecord := range pq.Namespaces {
+			val, ok := expectedCounts[i].ByNamespace[nsRecord.NamespaceID]
+			if !ok {
+				t.Errorf("unexpected namespace %v", nsRecord.NamespaceID)
+				continue
+			}
+			if uint64(val) != nsRecord.NonEntityTokens {
+				t.Errorf("wrong number of entities in %v: expected %v, got %v",
+					nsRecord.NamespaceID, val, nsRecord.NonEntityTokens)
+			}
+		}
+		if !pq.StartTime.Equal(expectedCounts[i].StartTime) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched start time: expected %v got %v",
+				expectedCounts[i].StartTime, pq.StartTime)
+		}
+		if !pq.EndTime.Equal(expectedCounts[i].EndTime) {
+			t.Errorf("mismatched end time: expected %v got %v",
+				expectedCounts[i].EndTime, pq.EndTime)
+		}
+	}
+
+	testCases := []struct {
+		InsertUpTo   int // index in the toInsert array
+		PrevMonth    int64
+		NextMonth    int64
+		ExpectedUpTo int // index in the expectedCounts array
+	}{
+		{
+			2, // jan-august
+			august.Unix(),
+			september.Unix(),
+			0, // august-august
+		},
+		{
+			3, // jan-sept
+			september.Unix(),
+			october.Unix(),
+			2, // august-september
+		},
+		{
+			6, // jan-oct
+			october.Unix(),
+			november.Unix(),
+			5, // august-september
+		},
+	}
+
+	inserted := -1
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		t.Logf("tc %+v", tc)
+
+		// Persists across loops
+		for inserted < tc.InsertUpTo {
+			inserted += 1
+			t.Logf("inserting segment %v", inserted)
+			doInsert(inserted)
+		}
+
+		intent := &ActivityIntentLog{
+			PreviousMonth: tc.PrevMonth,
+			NextMonth:     tc.NextMonth,
+		}
+		data, err := json.Marshal(intent)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		WriteToStorage(t, core, "sys/counters/activity/endofmonth", data)
+
+		// Pretend we've successfully rolled over to the following month
+		a.SetStartTimestamp(tc.NextMonth)
+
+		err = a.precomputedQueryWorker()
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+
+		expectMissingSegment(t, core, "sys/counters/activity/endofmonth")
+
+		for i := 0; i <= tc.ExpectedUpTo; i++ {
+			checkPrecomputedQuery(i)
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Check metrics on the last precomputed query
+	// (otherwise we need a way to reset the in-memory metrics between test cases.)
+
+	intervals := sink.Data()
+	// Test crossed an interval boundary, don't try to deal with it.
+	if len(intervals) > 1 {
+		t.Skip("Detected interval crossing.")
+	}
+	expectedGauges := []struct {
+		Name           string
+		NamespaceLabel string
+		Value          float32
+	}{
+		// october values
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"root",
+			15.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"deleted-bbbbb", // No namespace entry for this fake ID
+			5.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.monthly",
+			"deleted-ccccc",
+			5.0,
+		},
+		// august-september values
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"root",
+			20.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-aaaaa",
+			5.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-bbbbb",
+			10.0,
+		},
+		{
+			"identity.nonentity.active.reporting_period",
+			"deleted-ccccc",
+			5.0,
+		},
+	}
+	for _, g := range expectedGauges {
+		found := false
+		for _, actual := range intervals[0].Gauges {
+			actualNamespaceLabel := ""
+			for _, l := range actual.Labels {
+				if l.Name == "namespace" {
+					actualNamespaceLabel = l.Value
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if actual.Name == g.Name && actualNamespaceLabel == g.NamespaceLabel {
+				found = true
+				if actual.Value != g.Value {
+					t.Errorf("Mismatched value for %v %v %v != %v",
+						g.Name, g.NamespaceLabel, actual.Value, g.Value)
+				}
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		if !found {
+			t.Errorf("No guage found for %v %v",
+				g.Name, g.NamespaceLabel)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 type BlockingInmemStorage struct{}
 
 func (b *BlockingInmemStorage) List(ctx context.Context, prefix string) ([]string, error) {
diff --git a/vault/activity_log_testing_util.go b/vault/activity_log_testing_util.go
index 6d3069319..36f97082f 100644
--- a/vault/activity_log_testing_util.go
+++ b/vault/activity_log_testing_util.go
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package vault
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"math/rand"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/helper/constants"
@@ -33,18 +34,18 @@ func (c *Core) InjectActivityLogDataThisMonth(t *testing.T) (map[string]uint64,
 	c.activityLog.fragmentLock.Lock()
 	defer c.activityLog.fragmentLock.Unlock()
 
-	c.activityLog.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID = tokens
-	c.activityLog.entityTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = entitiesByNS
+	c.activityLog.clientTracker.nonEntityCountByNamespaceID = tokens
+	c.activityLog.clientTracker.entityCountByNamespaceID = entitiesByNS
 	return entitiesByNS, tokens
 }
 
-// Return the in-memory activeEntities from an activity log
-func (c *Core) GetActiveEntities() map[string]struct{} {
+// Return the in-memory activeClients from an activity log
+func (c *Core) GetActiveClients() map[string]struct{} {
 	out := make(map[string]struct{})
 
 	c.stateLock.RLock()
 	c.activityLog.fragmentLock.RLock()
-	for k, v := range c.activityLog.entityTracker.activeEntities {
+	for k, v := range c.activityLog.clientTracker.activeClients {
 		out[k] = v
 	}
 	c.activityLog.fragmentLock.RUnlock()
@@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ func (c *Core) GetActiveEntities() map[string]struct{} {
 func (a *ActivityLog) GetCurrentEntities() *activity.EntityActivityLog {
 	a.l.RLock()
 	defer a.l.RUnlock()
-	return a.currentSegment.currentEntities
+	return a.currentSegment.currentClients
 }
 
 // WriteToStorage is used to put entity data in storage
@@ -90,6 +91,29 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) SetStandbyEnable(ctx context.Context, enabled bool) {
 	})
 }
 
+// NOTE: AddTokenToFragment is deprecated and can no longer be used, except for
+// testing backward compatibility. Please use AddClientToFragment instead.
+func (a *ActivityLog) AddTokenToFragment(namespaceID string) {
+	a.fragmentLock.Lock()
+	defer a.fragmentLock.Unlock()
+
+	if !a.enabled {
+		return
+	}
+
+	a.createCurrentFragment()
+
+	a.fragment.NonEntityTokens[namespaceID] += 1
+}
+
+func RandStringBytes(n int) string {
+	b := make([]byte, n)
+	for i := range b {
+		b[i] = byte(rand.Intn(26)) + 'a'
+	}
+	return string(b)
+}
+
 // ExpectCurrentSegmentRefreshed verifies that the current segment has been refreshed
 // non-nil empty components and updated with the `expectedStart` timestamp
 // Note: if `verifyTimeNotZero` is true, ignore `expectedStart` and just make sure the timestamp isn't 0
@@ -100,14 +124,11 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) ExpectCurrentSegmentRefreshed(t *testing.T, expectedStart
 	defer a.l.RUnlock()
 	a.fragmentLock.RLock()
 	defer a.fragmentLock.RUnlock()
-	if a.currentSegment.currentEntities == nil {
-		t.Fatalf("expected non-nil currentSegment.currentEntities")
+	if a.currentSegment.currentClients == nil {
+		t.Fatalf("expected non-nil currentSegment.currentClients")
 	}
-	if a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities == nil {
-		t.Errorf("expected non-nil currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities")
-	}
-	if a.entityTracker.activeEntities == nil {
-		t.Errorf("expected non-nil activeEntities")
+	if a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients == nil {
+		t.Errorf("expected non-nil currentSegment.currentClients.Entities")
 	}
 	if a.currentSegment.tokenCount == nil {
 		t.Fatalf("expected non-nil currentSegment.tokenCount")
@@ -115,16 +136,18 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) ExpectCurrentSegmentRefreshed(t *testing.T, expectedStart
 	if a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID == nil {
 		t.Errorf("expected non-nil currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID")
 	}
-
-	if len(a.currentSegment.currentEntities.Entities) > 0 {
-		t.Errorf("expected no current entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", a.currentSegment.currentEntities)
+	if a.clientTracker.activeClients == nil {
+		t.Errorf("expected non-nil activeClients")
 	}
-	if len(a.entityTracker.activeEntities) > 0 {
-		t.Errorf("expected no active entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", a.entityTracker.activeEntities)
+	if len(a.currentSegment.currentClients.Clients) > 0 {
+		t.Errorf("expected no current entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", a.currentSegment.currentClients)
 	}
 	if len(a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID) > 0 {
 		t.Errorf("expected no token counts to be loaded. got: %v", a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID)
 	}
+	if len(a.clientTracker.activeClients) > 0 {
+		t.Errorf("expected no active entity segment to be loaded. got: %v", a.clientTracker.activeClients)
+	}
 
 	if verifyTimeNotZero {
 		if a.currentSegment.startTimestamp == 0 {
@@ -142,7 +165,7 @@ func ActiveEntitiesEqual(active map[string]struct{}, test []*activity.EntityReco
 	}
 
 	for _, ent := range test {
-		if _, ok := active[ent.EntityID]; !ok {
+		if _, ok := active[ent.ClientID]; !ok {
 			return false
 		}
 	}
@@ -164,15 +187,8 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) SetStartTimestamp(timestamp int64) {
 	a.currentSegment.startTimestamp = timestamp
 }
 
-// SetTokenCount sets the tokenCount on an activity log
-func (a *ActivityLog) SetTokenCount(tokenCount *activity.TokenCount) {
-	a.l.Lock()
-	defer a.l.Unlock()
-	a.currentSegment.tokenCount = tokenCount
-}
-
-// GetCountByNamespaceID returns the count of tokens by namespace ID
-func (a *ActivityLog) GetCountByNamespaceID() map[string]uint64 {
+// GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID returns the count of tokens by namespace ID
+func (a *ActivityLog) GetStoredTokenCountByNamespaceID() map[string]uint64 {
 	a.l.RLock()
 	defer a.l.RUnlock()
 	return a.currentSegment.tokenCount.CountByNamespaceID
@@ -182,7 +198,7 @@ func (a *ActivityLog) GetCountByNamespaceID() map[string]uint64 {
 func (a *ActivityLog) GetEntitySequenceNumber() uint64 {
 	a.l.RLock()
 	defer a.l.RUnlock()
-	return a.currentSegment.entitySequenceNumber
+	return a.currentSegment.clientSequenceNumber
 }
 
 // SetEnable sets the enabled flag on the activity log
diff --git a/vault/core.go b/vault/core.go
index 39f7b6da7..ce4ff1a86 100644
--- a/vault/core.go
+++ b/vault/core.go
@@ -44,6 +44,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/helper/logging"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/logical"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/physical"
+	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/version"
 	sr "github.com/hashicorp/vault/serviceregistration"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/shamir"
 	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/vault/cluster"
@@ -568,6 +569,10 @@ type Core struct {
 	// enable/disable identifying response headers
 	enableResponseHeaderHostname   bool
 	enableResponseHeaderRaftNodeID bool
+
+	// VersionTimestamps is a map of vault versions to timestamps when the version
+	// was first run
+	VersionTimestamps map[string]time.Time
 }
 
 func (c *Core) HAState() consts.HAState {
@@ -1032,9 +1037,33 @@ func NewCore(conf *CoreConfig) (*Core, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
+	if c.VersionTimestamps == nil {
+		c.logger.Info("Initializing VersionTimestamps for core")
+		c.VersionTimestamps = make(map[string]time.Time)
+	}
+
 	return c, nil
 }
 
+// HandleVersionTimeStamps stores the current version at the current time to
+// storage, and then loads all versions and upgrade timestamps out from storage.
+func (c *Core) HandleVersionTimeStamps(ctx context.Context) error {
+	currentTime := time.Now()
+	isUpdated, err := c.StoreVersionTimestamp(ctx, version.Version, currentTime)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if isUpdated {
+		c.logger.Info("Recorded vault version", "vault version", version.Version, "upgrade time", currentTime)
+	}
+	// Finally, load the versions into core fields
+	err = c.HandleLoadVersionTimestamps(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 // HostnameHeaderEnabled determines whether to add the X-Vault-Hostname header
 // to HTTP responses.
 func (c *Core) HostnameHeaderEnabled() bool {
@@ -2134,6 +2163,11 @@ func (c *Core) postUnseal(ctx context.Context, ctxCancelFunc context.CancelFunc,
 			c.logger.Warn("post-unseal post seal migration failed", "error", err)
 		}
 	}
+	err := c.HandleVersionTimeStamps(c.activeContext)
+	if err != nil {
+		c.logger.Warn("post-unseal version timestamp setup failed", "error", err)
+
+	}
 
 	c.logger.Info("post-unseal setup complete")
 	return nil
diff --git a/vault/core_test.go b/vault/core_test.go
index ce1688212..a0c59d811 100644
--- a/vault/core_test.go
+++ b/vault/core_test.go
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package vault
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"fmt"
 	"reflect"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
@@ -53,6 +54,23 @@ func TestSealConfig_Invalid(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestCore_HasVaultVersion checks that VersionTimestamps are correct and initialized
+// after a core has been unsealed.
+func TestCore_HasVaultVersion(t *testing.T) {
+	c, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
+	if c.VersionTimestamps == nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Version timestamps for core were not initialized for a new core")
+	}
+	upgradeTime, ok := c.VersionTimestamps["1.9.0"]
+	if !ok {
+		t.Fatalf("1.9.0 upgrade time not found")
+	}
+	if upgradeTime.After(time.Now()) || upgradeTime.Before(time.Now().Add(-1*time.Hour)) {
+		t.Fatalf("upgrade time isn't within reasonable bounds of new core initialization. " +
+			fmt.Sprintf("time is: %+v, upgrade time is %+v", time.Now(), upgradeTime))
+	}
+}
+
 func TestCore_Unseal_MultiShare(t *testing.T) {
 	c := TestCore(t)
 
diff --git a/vault/core_util_common.go b/vault/core_util_common.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a70cac733
--- /dev/null
+++ b/vault/core_util_common.go
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+package vault
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"fmt"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/hashicorp/vault/sdk/logical"
+)
+
+const vaultVersionPath string = "core/versions/"
+
+// StoreVersionTimestamp will store the version and timestamp pair to storage only if no entry
+// for that version already exists in storage.
+func (c *Core) StoreVersionTimestamp(ctx context.Context, version string, currentTime time.Time) (bool, error) {
+	timeStamp, err := c.barrier.Get(ctx, vaultVersionPath+version)
+	if err != nil {
+		return false, err
+	}
+
+	if timeStamp != nil {
+		return false, nil
+	}
+
+	vaultVersion := VaultVersion{TimestampInstalled: currentTime, Version: version}
+	marshalledVaultVersion, err := json.Marshal(vaultVersion)
+	if err != nil {
+		return false, err
+	}
+
+	err = c.barrier.Put(ctx, &logical.StorageEntry{
+		Key:   vaultVersionPath + version,
+		Value: marshalledVaultVersion,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		return false, err
+	}
+	return true, nil
+}
+
+// FindMostRecentVersionTimestamp loads the current vault version and associated
+// upgrade time from storage.
+func (c *Core) FindMostRecentVersionTimestamp() (string, time.Time, error) {
+	if c.VersionTimestamps == nil || len(c.VersionTimestamps) == 0 {
+		return "", time.Time{}, fmt.Errorf("Version timestamps are not initialized")
+	}
+	var latestUpgradeTime time.Time
+	var mostRecentVersion string
+	for version, upgradeTime := range c.VersionTimestamps {
+		if upgradeTime.After(latestUpgradeTime) {
+			mostRecentVersion = version
+			latestUpgradeTime = upgradeTime
+		}
+	}
+	// This if-case should never be hit
+	if mostRecentVersion == "" {
+		return "", latestUpgradeTime, fmt.Errorf("Empty vault version was written to storage at time: %+v", latestUpgradeTime)
+	}
+	return mostRecentVersion, latestUpgradeTime, nil
+}
+
+// FindOldestVersionTimestamp searches for the vault version with the oldest
+// upgrade timestamp from storage. The earliest version this can be (barring
+// downgrades) is 1.9.0.
+func (c *Core) FindOldestVersionTimestamp() (string, time.Time, error) {
+	if c.VersionTimestamps == nil || len(c.VersionTimestamps) == 0 {
+		return "", time.Time{}, fmt.Errorf("version timestamps are not initialized")
+	}
+
+	// initialize oldestUpgradeTime to current time
+	oldestUpgradeTime := time.Now()
+	var oldestVersion string
+	for version, upgradeTime := range c.VersionTimestamps {
+		if upgradeTime.Before(oldestUpgradeTime) {
+			oldestVersion = version
+			oldestUpgradeTime = upgradeTime
+		}
+	}
+	return oldestVersion, oldestUpgradeTime, nil
+}
+
+// HandleLoadVersionTimestamps loads all the vault versions and associated
+// upgrade timestamps from storage.
+func (c *Core) HandleLoadVersionTimestamps(ctx context.Context) (retErr error) {
+	vaultVersions, err := c.barrier.List(ctx, vaultVersionPath)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("unable to retrieve vault versions from storage: %+w", err)
+	}
+
+	for _, versionPath := range vaultVersions {
+		version, err := c.barrier.Get(ctx, vaultVersionPath+versionPath)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("unable to read vault version at path %s: err %+w", versionPath, err)
+		}
+		if version == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("nil version stored at path %s", versionPath)
+		}
+		var vaultVersion VaultVersion
+		err = json.Unmarshal(version.Value, &vaultVersion)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("unable to unmarshal vault version for path %s: err %w", versionPath, err)
+		}
+		if vaultVersion.Version == "" || vaultVersion.TimestampInstalled.IsZero() {
+			return fmt.Errorf("found empty serialized vault version at path %s", versionPath)
+		}
+		c.VersionTimestamps[vaultVersion.Version] = vaultVersion.TimestampInstalled
+	}
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/vault/core_util_common_test.go b/vault/core_util_common_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e47912e3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/vault/core_util_common_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package vault
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+)
+
+// TestStoreMultipleVaultVersions writes multiple versions of 1.9.0 and verifies that only
+// the original timestamp is stored.
+func TestStoreMultipleVaultVersions(t *testing.T) {
+	c, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
+	upgradeTimePlusEpsilon := time.Now()
+	wasStored, err := c.StoreVersionTimestamp(context.Background(), "1.9.0", upgradeTimePlusEpsilon.Add(30*time.Hour))
+	if err != nil || wasStored {
+		t.Fatalf("vault version was re-stored: %v, err is: %s", wasStored, err.Error())
+	}
+	upgradeTime, ok := c.VersionTimestamps["1.9.0"]
+	if !ok {
+		t.Fatalf("no 1.9.0 version timestamp found")
+	}
+	if upgradeTime.After(upgradeTimePlusEpsilon) {
+		t.Fatalf("upgrade time for 1.9.0 is incorrect: got %+v, expected less than %+v", upgradeTime, upgradeTimePlusEpsilon)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestGetOldestVersion verifies that FindOldestVersionTimestamp finds the oldest
+// vault version stored.
+func TestGetOldestVersion(t *testing.T) {
+	c, _, _ := TestCoreUnsealed(t)
+	upgradeTimePlusEpsilon := time.Now()
+	c.StoreVersionTimestamp(context.Background(), "1.9.1", upgradeTimePlusEpsilon.Add(-4*time.Hour))
+	c.StoreVersionTimestamp(context.Background(), "1.9.2", upgradeTimePlusEpsilon.Add(2*time.Hour))
+	c.HandleLoadVersionTimestamps(c.activeContext)
+	if len(c.VersionTimestamps) != 3 {
+		t.Fatalf("expected 3 entries in timestamps map after refresh, found: %d", len(c.VersionTimestamps))
+	}
+	v, tm, err := c.FindOldestVersionTimestamp()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if v != "1.9.1" {
+		t.Fatalf("expected 1.9.1, found: %s", v)
+	}
+	if tm.Before(upgradeTimePlusEpsilon.Add(-6*time.Hour)) || tm.After(upgradeTimePlusEpsilon.Add(-2*time.Hour)) {
+		t.Fatalf("incorrect upgrade time logged: %v", tm)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/vault/request_handling.go b/vault/request_handling.go
index ba53c82fe..16e233e8f 100644
--- a/vault/request_handling.go
+++ b/vault/request_handling.go
@@ -396,10 +396,11 @@ func (c *Core) checkToken(ctx context.Context, req *logical.Request, unauth bool
 		return auth, te, retErr
 	}
 
-	// If it is an authenticated ( i.e with vault token ) request
-	// associated with an entity, increment client count
-	if !unauth && c.activityLog != nil && te.EntityID != "" {
-		c.activityLog.HandleTokenCreation(te)
+	// If it is an authenticated ( i.e with vault token ) request, increment client count
+	if !unauth && c.activityLog != nil {
+		clientID, _ := c.activityLog.CreateClientID(req.TokenEntry())
+		req.ClientID = clientID
+		c.activityLog.HandleTokenUsage(te)
 	}
 	return auth, te, nil
 }
diff --git a/vault/token_store.go b/vault/token_store.go
index 8a5079058..85d82244a 100644
--- a/vault/token_store.go
+++ b/vault/token_store.go
@@ -508,8 +508,7 @@ type TokenStore struct {
 	parentBarrierView   *BarrierView
 	rolesBarrierView    *BarrierView
 
-	expiration  *ExpirationManager
-	activityLog *ActivityLog
+	expiration *ExpirationManager
 
 	cubbyholeBackend *CubbyholeBackend
 
@@ -686,12 +685,6 @@ func (ts *TokenStore) SetExpirationManager(exp *ExpirationManager) {
 	ts.expiration = exp
 }
 
-// SetActivityLog injects the activity log to which all new
-// token creation events are reported.
-func (ts *TokenStore) SetActivityLog(a *ActivityLog) {
-	ts.activityLog = a
-}
-
 // SaltID is used to apply a salt and hash to an ID to make sure its not reversible
 func (ts *TokenStore) SaltID(ctx context.Context, id string) (string, error) {
 	ns, err := namespace.FromContext(ctx)
@@ -910,11 +903,6 @@ func (ts *TokenStore) create(ctx context.Context, entry *logical.TokenEntry) err
 			return err
 		}
 
-		// Update the activity log in case the token has no entity
-		if ts.activityLog != nil && entry.EntityID == "" {
-			ts.activityLog.HandleTokenCreation(entry)
-		}
-
 		return ts.storeCommon(ctx, entry, true)
 
 	case logical.TokenTypeBatch:
@@ -961,11 +949,6 @@ func (ts *TokenStore) create(ctx context.Context, entry *logical.TokenEntry) err
 			entry.ID = fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s", entry.ID, tokenNS.ID)
 		}
 
-		// Update the activity log in case the token has no entity
-		if ts.activityLog != nil && entry.EntityID == "" {
-			ts.activityLog.HandleTokenCreation(entry)
-		}
-
 		return nil
 
 	default:
diff --git a/vault/vault_version_time.go b/vault/vault_version_time.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..40f3f2813
--- /dev/null
+++ b/vault/vault_version_time.go
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package vault
+
+import "time"
+
+type VaultVersion struct {
+	TimestampInstalled time.Time
+	Version            string
+}